In vivo optical assessment of cerebral and skeletal muscle microvascular response to phenylephrine.

This study aimed to investigate the simultaneous response of the cerebral and skeletal muscle microvasculature to the same phenylephrine (PE) boluses. A hybrid optical system that combines hyperspectral near-infrared spectroscopy (hs-NIRS) and diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS) was used to monitor changes in tissue oxygenation and perfusion. Data were collected from the head and hind limb of seven male Sprague-Dawley rats while administering intravenous (IV) injections of PE or saline to all animals. The response to saline was used as a control. Skeletal muscle oxygenation decreased significantly after PE injection, while a statistically underpowered decrease in perfusion was observed, followed by an increase beyond baseline. Vascular conductance also decreased in the muscle reflecting the drug's vasoconstrictive effects. Tissue oxygenation and perfusion increased in the brain in response to PE. Initially, there was a sharp increase in cerebral perfusion but no changes in cerebral vascular conductance. Subsequently, cerebral flow and vascular conductance decreased significantly below baseline, likely reflecting autoregulatory mechanisms to manage the excess flow. Further, fitting an exponential function to the secondary decrease in cerebral perfusion and increase in muscular blood flow revealed a quicker kinetic response in the brain to adjust blood flow. In the skeletal muscle, PE caused a transient decrease in blood volume due to vasoconstriction, which resulted in an overall decrease in hemoglobin content and tissue oxygen saturation. Since PE does not directly affect cerebral vessels, this peripheral vasoconstriction shunted blood into the brain, resulting in an initial increase in oxygenated hemoglobin and oxygen saturation.

Capillary oxygen regulates demand-supply coupling by triggering connexin40-mediated conduction: Rethinking the metabolic hypothesis.

Coupling red blood cell (RBC) supply to O2 demand is an intricate process requiring O2 sensing, generation of a stimulus, and signal transduction that alters upstream arteriolar tone. Although actively debated, this process has been theorized to be induced by hypoxia and to involve activation of endothelial inwardly rectifying K+ channels (KIR) 2.1 by elevated extracellular K+ to trigger conducted hyperpolarization via connexin40 (Cx40) gap junctions to upstream resistors. This concept was tested in resting healthy skeletal muscle of Cx40-/- and endothelial KIR2.1-/- mice using state-of-the-art live animal imaging where the local tissue O2 environment was manipulated using a custom gas chamber. Second-by-second capillary RBC flow responses were recorded as O2 was altered. A stepwise drop in PO2 at the muscle surface increased RBC supply in capillaries of control animals while elevated O2 elicited the opposite response; capillaries were confirmed to express Cx40. The RBC flow responses were rapid and tightly coupled to O2; computer simulations did not support hypoxia as a driving factor. In contrast, RBC flow responses were significantly diminished in Cx40-/- mice. Endothelial KIR2.1-/- mice, on the other hand, reacted normally to O2 changes, even when the O2 challenge was targeted to a smaller area of tissue with fewer capillaries. Conclusively, microvascular O2 responses depend on coordinated electrical signaling via Cx40 gap junctions, and endothelial KIR2.1 channels do not initiate the event. These findings reconceptualize the paradigm of blood flow regulation in skeletal muscle and how O2 triggers this process in capillaries independent of extracellular K+.

Spectroscopy detects skeletal muscle microvascular dysfunction during onset of sepsis in a rat fecal peritonitis model.

Sepsis is a dysregulated host inflammatory response to infection potentially leading to life-threatening organ dysfunction. The objectives of this study were to determine whether early microvascular dysfunction (MVD) in skeletal muscle can be detected as dynamic changes in microvascular hemoglobin (MVHb) levels using spectroscopy and whether MVD precedes organ histopathology in septic peritonitis. Skeletal muscle of male Sprague-Dawley rats was prepared for intravital microscopy. After intraperitoneal injection of fecal slurry or saline, microscopy and spectroscopy recordings were taken for 6 h. Capillary red blood cell (RBC) dynamics and SO2 were quantified from digitized microscopy frames and MVHb levels were derived from spectroscopy data. Capillary RBC dynamics were significantly decreased by 4 h after peritoneal infection and preceded macrohemodynamic changes. At the same time, low-frequency oscillations in MVHb levels exhibited a significant increase in Power in parts of the muscle and resembled oscillations in RBC dynamics and SO2. After completion of microscopy, tissues were collected. Histopathological alterations were not observed in livers, kidneys, brains, or muscles 6 h after induction of peritonitis. The findings of this study show that, in our rat model of sepsis, MVD occurs before detectable organ histopathology and includes ~ 30-s oscillations in MVHb. Our work highlights MVHb oscillations as one of the indicators of MVD onset and provides a foundation for the use of non-invasive spectroscopy to continuously monitor MVD in septic patients.

Optical method to determine in vivo capillary hematocrit, hemoglobin concentration, and 3-D network geometry in skeletal muscle.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to develop a tool to visualize and quantify hemodynamic information, such as hemoglobin concentration and hematocrit, within microvascular networks recorded in vivo using intravital video microscopy. Additionally, we aimed to facilitate the 3-D reconstruction of the microvascular networks. METHODS: Digital images taken from an intravital video microscopy preparation of the extensor digitorum longus muscle in rats for 25 capillary segments were used. The developed algorithm was used to delineate capillaries of interest, calculate the optical density for each pixel in the image, and reconstruct the 3-D capillary geometry using the calculated light path-lengths. Subsequently, the mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), hemoglobin concentration, and hematocrit for these capillaries were calculated. We evaluated the hematocrit values determined by our methodology by comparing them to those obtained using a previously published method. RESULTS: The hematocrit values from the proposed optical method were strongly correlated with those calculated using published methods r2 (25) = .92, p < .001, and demonstrated excellent agreement with a mean difference of 1.3% and a coefficient of variation (CV) of 11%. The average MCHC, hemoglobin concentration, and light path-lengths were 23.83 g/dl, 8.06 g/dl, and 3.92 µm, respectively. CONCLUSION: The proposed methodology can quantify hemodynamic measurements and produce functional images for visualization of the microcirculation in vivo.

Capillary module haemodynamics and mechanisms of blood flow regulation in skeletal muscle capillary networks: Experimental and computational analysis.

The capillary module (CM), consisting of parallel capillaries from terminal arteriole to post-capillary venule, is classically considered to be the building block of complex capillary networks. In skeletal muscle, CMs form interconnected columns spanning thousands of microns, which we recently described as the capillary fascicle. However, detailed evaluation of CM haemodynamics has not been described, and may provide insight into mechanisms of blood flow regulation in the microcirculation. We used intravital videomicroscopy from resting extensor digitorum longus muscle in rats (n = 9 networks, 112 capillary modules), as well as dual-phase computational modelling of blood flow in simulated CM geometries. We found that the mean driving pressure across CMs was 3.236 ± 1.833 mmHg. Red blood cell (RBC) flow was independent of CM resistance, and the ratio of blood flow in adjacent modules was not correlated with their ratio of resistances. In simulated CM geometries, increases to driving pressure produced a direct linear increase to RBC and plasma flow, with no changes to RBC distribution; increases to arteriolar inflow haematocrit resulted in increased RBC flow, but with viscosity-dependent increases to CM resistance. CM RBC flow heterogeneity was higher than plasma flow heterogeneity in experimental data, in contrast to simulated geometries, suggesting that time-dependent flow variability may have important consequences for RBC distribution. In summary, these findings suggest that CMs are active participants in microvascular flow regulation, likely achieved through adjustments to CM driving pressure using pre- and post-capillary loci of flow control. Increases to CM viscosity may be important during the regulation of functional hyperaemia. KEY POINTS: The capillary module (CM), consisting of parallel capillaries from the arteriole to venule, is classically considered to be the building block of capillary networks in skeletal muscle. A detailed evaluation of module haemodynamics may provide insight into mechanisms of blood flow regulation in the microcirculation. Using experimental data from resting skeletal muscle in rats, as well as dual-phase computational models of blood flow, we analysed haemodynamic relationships and the impact of variations to boundary conditions on red blood cell and plasma distribution. We showed that driving pressure across CMs is low, and that simulated increases to inflow haematocrit have important viscosity-dependent effects on module resistance. We found that red blood cell flow was independent from module resistance, which strongly suggests the regulation of driving pressure at the level of the capillary module using pre- and post-capillary loci of flow control. These findings place CMs as central participants in microvascular flow regulation, with important consequences for disease and functional hyperaemia.

Low-flow intussusception and metastable VEGFR2 signaling launch angiogenesis in ischemic muscle.

Efforts to promote sprouting angiogenesis in skeletal muscles of individuals with peripheral artery disease have not been clinically successful. We discovered that, contrary to the prevailing view, angiogenesis following ischemic muscle injury in mice was not driven by endothelial sprouting. Instead, real-time imaging revealed the emergence of wide-caliber, primordial conduits with ultralow flow that rapidly transformed into a hierarchical neocirculation by transluminal bridging and intussusception. This process was accelerated by inhibiting vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 (VEGFR2). We probed this response by developing the first live-cell model of transluminal endothelial bridging using microfluidics. Endothelial cells subjected to ultralow shear stress could reposition inside the flowing lumen as pillars. Moreover, the low-flow lumen proved to be a privileged location for endothelial cells with reduced VEGFR2 signaling capacity, as VEGFR2 mechanosignals were boosted. These findings redefine regenerative angiogenesis in muscle as an intussusceptive process and uncover a basis for its launch.

Localized Oxygen Exchange Platform for Intravital Video Microscopy Investigations of Microvascular Oxygen Regulation.

Intravital microscopy has proven to be a powerful tool for studying microvascular physiology. In this study, we propose a gas exchange system compatible with intravital microscopy that can be used to impose gas perturbations to small localized regions in skeletal muscles or other tissues that can be imaged using conventional inverted microscopes. We demonstrated the effectiveness of this system by locally manipulating oxygen concentrations in rat extensor digitorum longus muscle and measuring the resulting vascular responses. A computational model of oxygen transport was used to partially validate the localization of oxygen changes in the tissue, and oxygen saturation of red blood cells flowing through capillaries were measured as a surrogate for local tissue oxygenation. Overall, we have demonstrated that this approach can be used to study dynamic and spatial responses to local oxygen challenges to the microenvironment of skeletal muscle.

Evidence for role of capillaries in regulation of skeletal muscle oxygen supply.

How oxygen (O2 ) supply to capillaries is regulated to match the tissue's demand is unknown. Erythrocytes have been proposed as sensors in this regulatory mechanism since they release ATP, a vasodilator, in an oxygen saturation (SO2 )-dependent manner. ATP causes hyperpolarization of endothelial cells resulting in conducted vasodilation to arterioles. OBJECTIVE: We propose individual capillary units can regulate their own O2 supply by direct communication to upstream arterioles via electrically coupled endothelium. METHODS: To test this hypothesis, we developed a transparent micro-exchange device for localized O2 exchange with surface capillaries of intact tissue. The device was fabricated with an O2 permeable micro-outlet 0.2 × 1.0 mm. Experiments were performed on rat extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscle using dual wavelength video microscopy to measure capillary hemodynamics and erythrocyte SO2 . Responses to local O2 perturbations were measured with only capillaries positioned over the micro-outlet. RESULTS: Step changes in the gas mixture %O2 caused physiological changes in erythrocyte SO2 , and appropriate changes in flow to offset the O2 challenge if at least 3-4 capillaries were stimulated. CONCLUSION: These results support our hypothesis that individual capillary units play a role in regulating their erythrocyte supply in response to a changing O2 environment.

The capillary fascicle in skeletal muscle: Structural and functional physiology of RBC distribution in capillary networks.

KEY POINTS: The capillary module, consisting of parallel capillaries from arteriole to venule, is classically considered as the building block of complex capillary networks. In skeletal muscle, this structure fails to address how blood flow is regulated along the entire length of the synchronously contracting muscle fibres. Using intravital video microscopy of resting extensor digitorum longus muscle in rats, we demonstrated the capillary fascicle as a series of interconnected modules forming continuous columns that align naturally with the dimensions of the muscle fascicle. We observed structural heterogeneity for module topology, and functional heterogeneity in space and time for capillary-red blood cell (RBC) haemodynamics within a module and between modules. We found that module RBC haemodynamics were independent of module resistance, providing direct evidence for microvascular flow regulation at the level of the capillary module. The capillary fascicle is an updated paradigm for characterizing blood flow and RBC distribution in skeletal muscle capillary networks. ABSTRACT: Capillary networks are the fundamental site of oxygen exchange in the microcirculation. The capillary module (CM), consisting of parallel capillaries from terminal arteriole (TA) to post-capillary venule (PCV), is classically considered as the building block of complex capillary networks. In skeletal muscle, this structure fails to address how blood flow is regulated along the entire length of the synchronously contracting muscle fibres, requiring co-ordination from numerous modules. It has previously been recognized that TAs and PCVs interact with multiple CMs, creating interconnected networks. Using label-free intravital video microscopy of resting extensor digitorum longus muscle in rats, we found that these networks form continuous columns of linked CMs spanning thousands of microns, herein denoted as the capillary fascicle (CF); this structure aligns naturally with the dimensions of the muscle fascicle. We measured capillary-red blood cell (RBC) haemodynamics and module topology (n = 9 networks, 327 modules, 1491 capillary segments). The average module had length 481 µm, width 157 µm and 9.51 parallel capillaries. We observed structural heterogeneity for CM topology, and functional heterogeneity in space and time for capillary-RBC haemodynamics within a module and between modules. There was no correlation between capillary RBC velocity and lineal density. A passive inverse relationship between module length and haemodynamics was remarkably absent, providing direct evidence for microvascular flow regulation at the level of the CM. In summary, the CF is an updated paradigm for characterizing RBC distribution in skeletal muscle, and strengthens the theory of capillary networks as major contributors to the signal that regulates capillary perfusion.

High-fat diet pre-conditioning improves microvascular remodelling during regeneration of ischaemic mouse skeletal muscle.

AIM: Critical limb ischaemia (CLI) is characterized by inadequate angiogenesis, arteriolar remodelling and chronic myopathy, which are most severe in type 2 diabetic patients. Hypertriglyceridaemia, commonly observed in these patients, compromises macrovascular function. However, the effects of high-fat diet-induced increases in circulating lipids on microvascular remodelling are not established. Here, we investigated if high-fat diet would mimic the detrimental effect of type 2 diabetes on post-ischaemia vascular remodelling and muscle regeneration, using a mouse model of hindlimb ischaemia. METHODS: Male C57Bl6/J mice were fed with normal or high-fat diets for 8 weeks prior to unilateral femoral artery ligation. Laser doppler imaging was used to assess limb perfusion recovery. Vascular recovery, inflammation, myofibre regeneration and fibrosis were assessed at 4 or 14 days post-ligation by histology and RNA analyses. Capillary-level haemodynamics were assessed by intravital microscopy of control and regenerating muscles 14 days post-ligation. RESULTS: High-fat diet increased muscle succinate dehydrogenase activity and capillary-level oxygen supply. At 4 days post-ligation, no diet differences were detected in muscle damage, inflammatory infiltration or capillary activation. At 14 days post-ligation, high fat-fed mice displayed accelerated limb blood flow recovery, elevated capillary and arteriole densities as well as greater red blood cell supply rates and capillary-level oxygen supply. Regenerating muscles from high fat-fed mice displayed lower interstitial fat and collagen deposition. CONCLUSION: The muscle-level adaptations to high-fat diet improved multiple aspects of muscle recovery in response to ischaemia and did not recapitulate the worse outcomes seen in diabetic CLI patients.

Hyperinsulinemia does not cause de novo capillary recruitment in rat skeletal muscle.

OBJECTIVE: The effect of insulin on blood flow distribution within muscle microvasculature has been suggested to be important for glucose metabolism. However, the "capillary recruitment" hypothesis is still controversial and relies on studies using indirect contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEU) methods. METHODS: We studied how hyperinsulinemia effects capillary blood flow in rat extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscle during euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp using intravital video microscopy (IVVM). Additionally, we modeled blood flow and microbubble distribution within the vascular tree under conditions observed during euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp experiments. RESULTS: Euglycemic hyperinsulinemia caused an increase in erythrocyte (80 ± 25%, P < .01) and plasma (53 ± 12%, P < .01) flow in rat EDL microvasculature. We found no evidence of de novo capillary recruitment within, or among, capillary networks supplied by different terminal arterioles; however, erythrocyte flow became slightly more homogenous. Our computational model predicts that a decrease in asymmetry at arteriolar bifurcations causes redistribution of microbubble flow among capillaries already perfused with erythrocytes and plasma, resulting in 25% more microbubbles flowing through capillaries. CONCLUSIONS: Our model suggests increase in CEU signal during hyperinsulinemia reflects a redistribution of arteriolar flow and not de novo capillary recruitment. IVVM experiments support this prediction showing increases in erythrocyte and plasma flow and not capillary recruitment.

Four-Dimensional Microvascular Analysis Reveals That Regenerative Angiogenesis in Ischemic Muscle Produces a Flawed Microcirculation.

RATIONALE: Angiogenesis occurs after ischemic injury to skeletal muscle, and enhancing this response has been a therapeutic goal. However, to appropriately deliver oxygen, a precisely organized and exquisitely responsive microcirculation must form. Whether these network attributes exist in a regenerated microcirculation is unknown, and methodologies for answering this have been lacking. OBJECTIVE: To develop 4-dimensional methodologies for elucidating microarchitecture and function of the reconstructed microcirculation in skeletal muscle. METHODS AND RESULTS: We established a model of complete microcirculatory regeneration after ischemia-induced obliteration in the mouse extensor digitorum longus muscle. Dynamic imaging of red blood cells revealed the regeneration of an extensive network of flowing neo-microvessels, which after 14 days structurally resembled that of uninjured muscle. However, the skeletal muscle remained hypoxic. Red blood cell transit analysis revealed slow and stalled flow in the regenerated capillaries and extensive arteriolar-venular shunting. Furthermore, spatial heterogeneity in capillary red cell transit was highly constrained, and red blood cell oxygen saturation was low and inappropriately variable. These abnormalities persisted to 120 days after injury. To determine whether the regenerated microcirculation could regulate flow, the muscle was subjected to local hypoxia using an oxygen-permeable membrane. Hypoxia promptly increased red cell velocity and flux in control capillaries, but in neocapillaries, the response was blunted. Three-dimensional confocal imaging revealed that neoarterioles were aberrantly covered by smooth muscle cells, with increased interprocess spacing and haphazard actin microfilament bundles. CONCLUSIONS: Despite robust neovascularization, the microcirculation formed by regenerative angiogenesis in skeletal muscle is profoundly flawed in both structure and function, with no evidence for normalizing over time. This network-level dysfunction must be recognized and overcome to advance regenerative approaches for ischemic disease.

What is the efficiency of ATP signaling from erythrocytes to regulate distribution of O(2) supply within the microvasculature?

Erythrocytes appear to be ideal sensors for regulating microvascular O(2) supply as they release the potent vasodilator ATP in an O(2) saturation-dependent manner. Whether erythrocytes play a significant role in regulating O(2) supply in the complex environment of diffusional O(2) exchange among capillaries, arterioles, and venules, depends on the efficiency with which erythrocytes signal the vascular endothelium. If one assumes that the distribution of purinergic receptors is uniform throughout the microvasculature, then the most efficient site for signaling should occur in capillaries, where the erythrocyte membrane is in close proximity to the endothelium. ATP released from erythrocytes would diffuse a short distance to P(2y) receptors inducing an increase in blood flow, possibly the result of endothelial hyperpolarization. We hypothesize that this hyperpolarization varies across the capillary bed depending upon erythrocyte supply rate and the flux of O(2) from these erythrocytes to support O(2) metabolism. This would suggest that the capillary bed would be the most effective site for erythrocytes to communicate tissue oxygen needs. Electrically coupled endothelial cells conduct the integrated signal upstream where arterioles adjust vascular resistance, thus enabling ATP released from erythrocytes to regulate the magnitude and distribution of O(2) supply to individual capillary networks.

Mapping 3-D functional capillary geometry in rat skeletal muscle in vivo.

We have developed a novel mapping software package to reconstruct microvascular networks in three dimensions (3-D) from in vivo video images for use in blood flow and O2 transport modeling. An intravital optical imaging system was used to collect video sequences of blood flow in microvessels at different depths in the tissue. Functional images of vessels were produced from the video sequences and were processed using automated edge tracking software to yield location and geometry data for construction of the 3-D network. The same video sequences were analyzed for hemodynamic and O2 saturation data from individual capillaries in the network. Simple user-driven commands allowed the connection of vessel segments at bifurcations, and semiautomated registration enabled the tracking of vessels across multiple focal planes and fields of view. The reconstructed networks can be rotated and manipulated in 3-D to verify vessel connections and continuity. Hemodynamic and O2 saturation measurements made in vivo can be indexed to corresponding vessels and visualized using colorized maps of the vascular geometry. Vessels in each reconstruction are saved as text-based files that can be easily imported into flow or O2 transport models with complete geometry, hemodynamic, and O2 transport conditions. The results of digital morphometric analysis of seven microvascular networks showed mean capillary diameters and overall capillary density consistent with previous findings using histology and corrosion cast techniques. The described mapping software is a valuable tool for the quantification of in vivo microvascular geometry, hemodynamics, and oxygenation, thus providing rich data sets for experiment-based computational models.

Defects in oxygen supply to skeletal muscle of prediabetic ZDF rats.

In humans, prediabetes is characterized by marked increases in plasma insulin and near normal blood glucose levels as well as microvascular dysfunction of unknown origin. Using the extensor digitorum longus muscle of 7-wk inbred male Zucker diabetic fatty rats fed a high-fat diet as a model of prediabetes, we tested the hypothesis that hyperinsulinemia contributes to impaired O(2) delivery in skeletal muscle. Using in vivo video microscopy, we determined that the total O(2) supply to capillaries in the extensor digitorum longus muscle of prediabetic rats was reduced to 64% of controls with a lower O(2) supply rate per capillary and higher O(2) extraction resulting in a decreased O(2) saturation at the venous end of the capillary network. These findings suggest a lower average tissue Po(2) in prediabetic animals. In addition, we determined that insulin, at concentrations measured in humans and Zucker diabetic fatty rats with prediabetes, inhibited the O(2)-dependent release of ATP from rat red blood cells (RBCs). This inability to release ATP could contribute to the impaired O(2) delivery observed in rats with prediabetes, especially in light of the finding that the endothelium-dependent relaxation of resistance arteries from these animals is not different from controls and is not altered by insulin. Computational modeling confirmed a significant 8.3-mmHg decrease in average tissue Po(2) as well as an increase in the heterogeneity of tissue Po(2), implicating a failure of a regulatory system for O(2) supply. The finding that insulin attenuates the O(2)-dependent release of ATP from RBCs suggests that this defect in RBC physiology could contribute to a failure in the regulation of O(2) supply to meet the demand in skeletal muscle in prediabetes.

Transfusion of stored red blood cells adhere in the rat microvasculature.

BACKGROUND: Ex vivo storage of red blood cells (RBCS) for transfusions is associated with a "storage lesion," which decreases RBC deformability and increases RBC adhesiveness to vascular endothelium. This may impair microcirculatory flow with deleterious effects on oxygen delivery after transfusion. Previous studies have shown that human RBCs adhere to endothelial monolayers in vitro with prolonged storage and is reduced by prestorage leukoreduction (LR). The objective of this study was to determine whether duration of RBC storage and LR influence RBC adhesion in vivo in capillaries. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: Rat RBCs were collected and stored in CPDA-1 under standard blood bank conditions. Three RBC products were compared: 1) fresh RBCs, less than 24 hours of storage (n = 6); 2) non leukoreduced (NLR) RBCs stored for 7 days (n = 6); and 3) prestorage LR RBCs stored for 7 days (n = 6). RBCs were labeled with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) 24 hours before transfusion and reinjected in an isovolemic manner into healthy rats. The FITC-labeled RBCs were visualized in the extensor digitorum longus muscle using intravital video microscopy (20 x magnification). The number of RBCs adherent in capillaries was counted 1 hour after transfusion in 10 random fields and the median values were compared with one-way analysis of variance. RESULTS: Stored RBCs showed increased levels of adherence in capillaries compared to their fresh counterparts (p < 0.05). Prestorage LR decreased RBC adherence to levels equivalent to those of fresh RBCs (p < 0.05 for stored LR vs. stored NLR). CONCLUSION: Rat RBCs stored under conditions that closely mimicked clinical transfusion adhere in capillaries. The decreased RBC adherence with LR suggest a direct effect of white blood cells or their byproducts on RBC deformability and/or adhesiveness to microvascular endothelium. Further study will examine the mechanism of adherence and the impact it has on microcirculatory flow and oxygen delivery in the critically ill host.

Effect of nitric oxide on capillary hemodynamics and cell injury in the pancreas during Pseudomonas pneumonia-induced sepsis.

Sepsis-induced nitric oxide (NO) overproduction has been implicated in a redistribution of flow from the pancreas making it vulnerable to ischemic injury in septic shock. To test this hypothesis in a remote injury model of normotensive sepsis, we induced Pseudomonas pneumonia in the rat and used intravital video microscopy (IVVM) of the pancreas to measure functional capillary density, capillary hemodynamics [red blood cell (RBC) velocity, lineal density, and supply rate], and lethal cellular damage (propidium iodine staining) at 6 and 24 h after the induction of pneumonia. With pneumonia, plasma nitrite/nitrate [NO2(-)/NO3(-)(NOx(-))] levels were doubled by 21 h (P < 0.05). To assess the effect of NO overproduction on microvascular perfusion, N6-(1-iminoethyl)-L-lysine (L-NIL) was administered to maintain NOx(-) levels at baseline. Pneumonia did cause a decrease in RBC velocity of 23% by 6 h, but by 24 h RBC velocity and supply rate had increased relative to sham by 22 and 38%, respectively (P < 0.05). L-NIL treatment demonstrated that this increase was due to NO overproduction. With pneumonia, there was no change in functional capillary density and only modest increases in cellular damage. We conclude that, in this normotensive pneumonia model of sepsis, NO overproduction was protective of microvascular perfusion in the pancreas.