Genes and Regulatory Mechanisms for Ginsenoside Biosynthesis.

Panax ginseng is a medicinal plant belonging to the Araliaceae family. Ginseng is known as the king of oriental medicine, which has been practiced since ancient times in East Asian countries and globally in the modern era. Ginseng is used as an adaptogen, and research shows that it has several pharmacological benefits for various ailments such as cancer, inflammation, diabetes, and neurological symptoms. The pharmacological benefits of ginseng are attributed to the triterpenoid saponin ginsenosides found throughout the Panax ginseng species, which are abundant in its root and are found exclusively in P. ginseng and Panax quinquefolius. Recently, with the completion of the entire ginseng genome sequencing and the construction of the ginseng genome database, it has become possible to access information about many genes newly predicted to be involved in ginsenoside biosynthesis. This review briefly summarizes the current progress in ginseng genome analysis and genes involved in ginsenoside biosynthesis, proposing directions for functional studies of the predicted genes related to ginsenoside production and its regulation.

Comparative transcriptome and metabolome analyses of four Panax species explore the dynamics of metabolite biosynthesis.

Background: The genus Panax in the Araliaceae family has been used as traditional medicinal plants worldwide and is known to biosynthesize ginsenosides and phytosterols. However, genetic variation between Panax species has influenced their biosynthetic pathways is not fully understood. Methods: Simultaneous analysis of transcriptomes and metabolomes obtained from adventitious roots of two tetraploid species (Panax ginseng and P. quinquefolius) and two diploid species (P. notoginseng and P. vietnamensis) revealed the diversity of their metabolites and related gene expression profiles. Results: The transcriptome analysis showed that 2,3-OXIDOSQUALENE CYCLASEs (OSCs) involved in phytosterol biosynthesis are upregulated in the diploid species, while the expression of OSCs contributing to ginsenoside biosynthesis is higher in the tetraploid species. In agreement with these results, the contents of dammarenediol-type ginsenosides were higher in the tetraploid species relative to the diploid species. Conclusion: These results suggest that a whole-genome duplication event has influenced the triterpene biosynthesis pathway in tetraploid Panax species during their evolution or ecological adaptation. This study provides a basis for further efforts to explore the genetic variation of the Panax genus.

Authentication of Hippophae rhamnoides ssp. sinensis and ssp. mongolica Based on Single Nucleotide Polymorphism at Ribosomal DNA and Their Vitamin Content Analysis.

Hippophae rhamnoides widely known as sea buckthorn berries (SB) are rich in vitamins and phytonutrients. The subspecies ssp. sinensis and ssp. mongolica are highly valued for their medicinal properties and vitamin contents, hence domesticated widely across Eurasia and Southeast Asia. Due to the frequent usage of these two subspecies, accurate identification is required to prevent economically motivated adulteration. In this study, we report the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) based molecular markers to easily distinguish these two subspecies at 45S nrDNA region. From the determined 45S rDNA region, we designed two primers (5' sinensis and 5' mongolica) and developed a multiplex PCR profile. The developed primers effectively distinguished the sea buckthorn subspecies in commercial products as well. Along with the development of subspecies specific primers, we have profiled vitamin contents from H. rhamnoides ssp. sinensis and ssp. mongolica and found ascorbic acid and riboflavin contents were high in both ssp. sinensis and spp. mongolica, yet the content of folic acid was high only in ssp. mongolica. Thus, we provide species specific primers and vitamin profile as an effective authentication of H. rhamnoides.

Overexpression of a novel cytochrome P450 monooxygenase gene, CYP704B1, from Panax ginseng increase biomass of reproductive tissues in transgenic Arabidopsis.

Cytochrome P450 monooxygenase 704B (CYP704B), a member of the CYP86 clan, was found to be needed in Arabidopsis and rice to biosynthesize precursors of sporopollenin through oxidizing fatty acids. In the present study, we cloned and characterized a CYP704B gene in Panax ginseng, named PgCYP704B1. It shared high sequence identity (98-99%) with CYP704 of Arabidopsis, Theobroma cacao, and Morus notabilis. The phylogenetic comparison of ginseng and higher plants between the members of CYP86 clan revealed that ginseng CYP704 was categorized as a group of CYP704B with dicot plants. The expression of PgCYP704B1 is low in the stem, leaf, and fruit, and high in flower buds, particularly detected in the young gametic cell and tapetum layer of the developing anther. Arabidopsis plants overexpressing PgCYP704B1 improved plant biomass such as plant height, siliques and seed number and size. A cytological observation by transverse and longitudinal semi-thin sections of the siliques cuticles revealed that the cell length increased. Furthermore a chemical analysis showed that PgCYP704B1ox lines increased their cutin monomers contents in the siliques. Our results suggest that PgCYP704B1 has a conserved role during male reproduction for fatty acid biosynthesis and its overexpression increases cutin monomers in siliques that eventually could be used for seed production.

Silicon confers protective effect against ginseng root rot by regulating sugar efflux into apoplast.

Root rot caused by Ilyonectria mors-panacis is a devastating fungal disease leading to defect in root quality and causes reduced yield during the perennial life cycle of Panax ginseng Meyer. This indicates the imperative need to understand the molecular basis of disease development and also to enhance tolerance against the fungus. With this idea, the protective effect of silicon (supplied as silica nanoparticles) in P. ginseng root rot pathosystem and its molecular mechanism was investigated in the current study. We have tested different concentrations of silicon (Si) to disease-infected ginseng and found that long term analysis (30 dpi) displayed a striking 50% reduction in disease severity index upon the treatment of Si. Expectedly, Si had no direct degradative effect against the pathogen. Instead, in infected roots it resulted in reduced expression of PgSWEET leading to regulated sugar efflux into apoplast and enhanced tolerance against I. mors-panacis. In addition, under diseased condition, both protopanaxadiol (PPD) and protopanaxatriol (PPT) type ginsenoside profile in roots were higher in Si treated plants. This is the first report indicating the protective role of Si in ginseng-root rot pathosystem, thereby uncovering novel features of ginseng mineral physiology and at the same time, enabling its usage to overcome root rot.

Development of species-specific chloroplast markers for the authentication of Gynostemma pentaphyllum and their distribution in the Korean peninsula.

Gynostemma pentaphyllum is a traditional oriental medicinal herb used as tea since ancient time. Among Gynostemma species, G. pentaphyllum has more active chemical components and better therapeutic effect. It is used to cure depression, diabetes, anxiety, hyperlipidemia, fatigue, immunity, cancer, and oxidative stress. Overexploitation of G. pentaphyllum for its medicinal benefits has been on a rise, due to which they are adulterated or mistakenly identified with other members of Gynostemma species. Hence, we used chloroplast universal regions such as ycf3, accD, petD, psbB and their polymorphism to distinguish G. pentaphyllum from other Gynostemma species. By using the species-specific primers derived from the above regions, we established a multiplex allele-specific PCR for the authentication of G. pentaphyllum from other species. Thus the PCR reaction produced unique amplicons of size 244 bp and 438 bp for G. pentaphyllum amplified by the primers flanking ycf3, and accD regions respectively. While a 607 bp, and 787 bp amplicons from the primers targeting psbB, and petD regions distinguished G. longipes, G. burmanicum, and G. pubescens species. Moreover, these primers were successful to analyze the dried tea samples of Gynostemma as well. Thus, the developed molecular markers could authenticate different Gynostemma species as well as its products thereby preventing the mistaken-identity of this medicinal herb.

Molecular signaling of ginsenosides Rb1, Rg1, and Rg3 and their mode of actions.

Ginseng has gained its popularity as an adaptogen since ancient days because of its triterpenoid saponins, known as ginsenosides. These triterpenoid saponins are unique and classified as protopanaxatriol and protopanaxadiol saponins based on their glycosylation patterns. They play many protective roles in humans and are under intense research as various groups continue to study their efficacy at the molecular level in various disorders. Ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 are the most abundant ginsenosides present in ginseng roots, and they confer the pharmacological properties of the plant, whereas ginsenoside Rg3 is abundantly present in Korean Red Ginseng preparation, which is highly known for its anticancer effects. These ginsenosides have a unique mode of action in modulating various signaling cascades and networks in different tissues. Their effect depends on the bioavailability and the physiological status of the cell. Mostly they amplify the response by stimulating phosphotidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase/protein kinase B pathway, caspase-3/caspase-9-mediated apoptotic pathway, adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells signaling. Furthermore, they trigger receptors such as estrogen receptor, glucocorticoid receptor, and N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor. This review critically evaluates the signaling pathways attenuated by ginsenosides Rb1, Rg1, and Rg3 in various tissues with emphasis on cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Metabolic dynamics and physiological adaptation of Panax ginseng during development.

KEY MESSAGE: The dynamics of metabolites from leaves to roots of Panax ginseng during development has revealed the tissue-specific and year-specific metabolic networks. Being an essential Oriental medicinal plant, ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) is a slow-growing perennial herb-accumulating pharmaceutically active metabolites such as ginsenosides in roots during growth. However, little is known about how ginseng plants survive in the harsh environments such as winter cold and summer heat for a longer period and accumulates those active metabolites as the plant grows. To understand the metabolic kinetics in both source and sink organs such as leaves and roots of ginseng plant, respectively, and to assess the changes in ginsenosides biosynthesis during ginseng growth, we investigated the metabolic profiles from leaves and roots of 1-, 4-, and 6-year-old field-grown ginseng plants. Using an integrated non-targeted metabolomic approach, we identified in total 348 primary and secondary metabolites, which provided us for the first time a global metabolomic assessment of ginseng during growth, and morphogenesis. Strikingly, the osmoprotectants and oxidized chemicals were highly accumulated in 4- and 6-year-old ginseng leaves suggested that ginseng develop a wide range of metabolic strategies to adapt unfavorable conditions as they mature. In 6-year-old plants, ginsenosides were decreased in leaves but increased in roots up to 1.2- to sixfold, supporting the view that there is a long-distance transport of ginsenosides from leaves to roots as ginseng plants mature. Our findings provide insights into the metabolic kinetics during the development of ginseng plant and this could complement the pharmacological importance of ginseng and its compounds according to their age.

Assessment of radical scavenging, whitening and moisture retention activities of Panax ginseng berry mediated gold nanoparticles as safe and efficient novel cosmetic material.

Panax ginseng berry extract possess remarkable pharmacological effects on skin treatment such as anti-aging, antioxidant, promotor of collagen synthesis and alleviation against atopic dermatitis. In recent years, gold nanoparticles have gained much attention due to their extensive range of applications in particular in the field of drug delivery as a result of their biological compatibility and low toxicity. In a previous study, we designed and developed biocompatible gold and silver nanoparticles based on phytochemical profile and pharmacological efficacy of P. ginseng berry extract, we were able to reduce gold ions to nanoparticles through the process of green synthesis. However, its potential as a cosmetic ingredient is still unexplored. The aim of the present study is to investigate the moisture retention, in-vitro scavenging and whitening properties of gold nanoparticles synthesized from P. ginseng berry in cosmetic applications. Our findings confirm that P. ginseng berry mediated gold nanoparticles exhibited moisture retention capacity. In addition, MTT assay results confirmed that P. ginseng berry mediated gold nanoparticles are non-toxic to human dermal fibroblast and murine melanoma skin cells, possess scavenging activity, protect and provide alleviation against injured caused by H2O2-induced damage. In addition, P. ginseng berry mediated gold nanoparticles, significantly reduced melanin content and suppress tyrosinase activity in α-MSH-stimulated B16BL6 cells. We conclude that P. ginseng berry mediated gold nanoparticles are biocompatible and environmental affable materials and can be a potential novel cosmetic ingredient.

Development of a single-nucleotide-polymorphism marker for specific authentication of Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) new cultivar "G-1".

BACKGROUND: Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng) is a well-known medicinal plant of Oriental medicine that is still in practice today. Until now, a total of 11 Korean ginseng cultivars with unique features to Korean ginseng have been developed based on the pure-line-selection method. Among them, a new cultivar namely G-1 with different agricultural traits related to yield and content of ginsenosides, was developed in 2012. METHODS: The aim of this study was to distinguish the new ginseng cultivar G-1 by identifying the unique single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) at its 45S ribosomal DNA and Panax quinquefolius region than other Korean ginseng cultivars using multiplex amplification-refractory mutation system-polymerase chain reaction (ARMS-PCR). RESULTS: A SNP at position of 45S ribosomal DNA region between G-1, P. quinquefolius, and the other Korean ginseng cultivars was identified. By designing modified allele-specific primers based on this site, we could specifically identified G-1 and P. quinquefolius via multiplex PCR. The unique primer for the SNP yielded an amplicon of size 449 bp in G-1 cultivar and P. quinquefolius. This study presents an effective method for the genetic identification of the G-1 cultivar and P. quinquefolius. CONCLUSION: The results from our study shows that this SNP-based approach to identify the G-1 cultivar will be a good way to distinguish accurately the G-1 cultivar and P. quinquefolius from other Korean ginseng cultivars using a SNP at 45S ribosomal DNA region.