Prokaryotic and Fungal Characterization of the Facilities Used to Assemble, Test, and Launch the OSIRIS-REx Spacecraft.

To characterize the ATLO (Assembly, Test, and Launch Operations) environment of the OSIRIS-REx spacecraft, we analyzed 17 aluminum witness foils and two blanks for bacterial, archaeal, fungal, and arthropod DNA. Under NASA's Planetary Protection guidelines, OSIRIS-REx is a Category II outbound, Category V unrestricted sample return mission. As a result, it has no bioburden restrictions. However, the mission does have strict organic contamination requirements to achieve its primary objective of returning pristine carbonaceous asteroid regolith to Earth. Its target, near-Earth asteroid (101955) Bennu, is likely to contain organic compounds that are biologically available. Therefore, it is useful to understand what organisms were present during ATLO as part of the larger contamination knowledge effort-even though it is unlikely that any of the organisms will survive the multi-year deep space journey. Even though these samples of opportunity were not collected or preserved for DNA analysis, we successfully amplified bacterial and archaeal DNA (16S rRNA gene) from 16 of the 17 witness foils containing as few as 7 ± 3 cells per sample. Fungal DNA (ITS1) was detected in 12 of the 17 witness foils. Despite observing arthropods in some of the ATLO facilities, arthropod DNA (COI gene) was not detected. We observed 1,009 bacterial and archaeal sOTUs (sub-operational taxonomic units, 100% unique) and 167 fungal sOTUs across all of our samples (25-84 sOTUs per sample). The most abundant bacterial sOTU belonged to the genus Bacillus. This sOTU was present in blanks and may represent contamination during sample handling or storage. The sample collected from inside the fairing just prior to launch contained several unique bacterial and fungal sOTUs that describe previously uncharacterized potential for contamination during the final phase of ATLO. Additionally, fungal richness (number of sOTUs) negatively correlates with the number of carbon-bearing particles detected on samples. The total number of fungal sequences positively correlates with total amino acid concentration. These results demonstrate that it is possible to use samples of opportunity to characterize the microbiology of low-biomass environments while also revealing the limitations imposed by sample collection and preservation methods not specifically designed with biology in mind.

Vehicle LATCH system features associated with correct child restraint installations.

OBJECTIVE: Lower anchors and tethers for children (LATCH) was intended to standardize the attachment between child restraints and vehicle seats. However, LATCH implementations vary, resulting in differences in ease of attachment of child restraint connectors. Identifying vehicle characteristics associated with correct child restraint installations can provide guidance for designing vehicle LATCH systems that increase correct child restraint installations. METHODS: The LATCH system and other relevant vehicle characteristics were documented in 98 top-selling 2010-2011 vehicles. These features, together with proposed LATCH usability recommendations from the International Organization for Standardization and Society of Automotive Engineers, were used to select 12 vehicles for volunteer testing with a range of LATCH system characteristics. Thirty-six volunteers were assigned to 4 groups; each group tested 3 vehicles, 4 child restraints (infant, rear-facing convertible, forward-facing convertible, and combination seat), and 2 installation methods (lower anchors and seat belt) in a split-plot experimental design. Mixed-effects logistic regression models were used to identify predictors of tight installation and correct lower anchor use. RESULTS: Vehicle survey results indicated that most vehicle manufacturers provide the minimum number of LATCH hardware locations required by regulation. Among 21 vehicles with a third row, 4 had no tether anchors and 11 had no lower anchors in the third row. Study volunteers correctly used the lower anchors in 60 percent of LATCH installations and used the top tether in 48 percent of forward-facing installations. When the tether was used, use was correct in 46 percent of trials (22% of all forward-facing installations). Only 13 percent of all trials had completely correct child restraint installation (correct use of lower anchors or seat belt, correct tether anchor use, tight seat installation, and correct installation angle). Tight installation was 3.3 times as likely with correct lower anchor use compared to trials with incorrect use. Three lower anchor characteristics were associated with rates of correct lower anchor use above 50 percent: clearance angle around the lower anchors greater than 54°, attachment forces less than 178 N, and anchor depth within the seat bight of less than 2 cm. Vehicles meeting all 3 criteria were 19 times as likely to have lower anchors used correctly compared to vehicles meeting none of the criteria. No vehicle features predicted either use of tethers or correct use of tethers. CONCLUSIONS: Vehicle LATCH systems that improve lower anchor accessibility could increase the rate of correct lower anchor use, but more research is needed to understand factors associated with tether use and correct use.

Using in-depth investigations to identify transportation safety issues for wheelchair-seated occupants of motor vehicles.

In-depth investigations of motor-vehicle crashes involve detailed inspection, measurement, and photodocumentation of vehicle exterior and interior damage, evidence of belt-restraint use, and evidence of occupant contacts with the vehicle interior. Results of in-depth investigations thereby provide the most objective way to identify current and emerging injury problems and issues in occupant safety and crash protection, and provide important feedback on the real-world performance of the latest restraint-system and vehicle crashworthiness technologies. To provide an objective understanding of real-world transportation safety issues for wheelchair-seated travelers, the University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) has been conducting and assembling data from in-depth investigations of motor-vehicle crashes and non-crash adverse moving-vehicle incidents, such as emergency vehicle braking, turning, and swerving, in which there was at least one vehicle occupant sitting in a wheelchair. The results of 39 investigations involving 42 wheelchair-seated occupants have been assembled and entered into a wheelchair-occupant crash/injury database. In addition, a biomechanical analysis of each case has been performed to identify key safety issues for wheelchair-seated travelers. The wheelchairs of 34 of the 42 occupants who were seated in wheelchairs while traveling in motor vehicles were effectively secured by either a four-point, strap-type tiedown system or a docking securement device, and all but one of these properly secured wheelchairs remained in place during the crash or non-collision event. However, 30 of the 42 occupants were improperly restrained, either because of non-use or incomplete use of available belt restraints, or because the belt restraints were improperly positioned on the occupant's body. Twenty-six of the 42 occupants sustained significant injuries and 10 of these occupants died as a direct result of injuries sustained, or from complications resulting from those injuries. These findings, when combined with the analyses of the individual cases, point to a need for better driver and caregiver education and training on how to properly secure wheelchairs and position belt restraints on wheelchair-seated passengers. They also point to a need for improved restraint systems used by wheelchair-seated drivers, and a need for wheelchair designs that facilitate the proper use and positioning of vehicle-anchored belt restraints.

After fifteen years: the response of small businesses to the Americans with Disabilities Act.

This study reports findings from field research on the perceptions of small business owners and managers of the impact of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) on their firms. Binary Logistic Regression analyses indicate that the majority of owners have positive attitudes toward the act and exhibit high levels of compliance. Firm support for the ADA and participation in carrying out its requirements is driven by both positive and negative factors and extends well beyond the group of businesses that under the law are required to comply with Titles I and III of the legislation. The results suggest strongly positive impacts of the ADA in the areas of accommodating customers with disabilities and disabled employees who are already on the job. Specific factors influencing compliance decisions and accommodations spending are incorporated in a proposed model of firm behavior.