Effect of the pre-taper level of fatigue on the taper-induced changes in performance in elite swimmers.

Introduction: In swimming, performance gains after tapering could be influenced by the pre-taper level of fatigue. Moreover, this level of fatigue could be associated with sleep. This study aimed to assess (1) the effect of tapering on performance according to the pre-taper level of fatigue in swimmers and (2) the association between sleep and pre-taper level of fatigue. Methods: Physiological, psychological and biomechanical profiles were evaluated in 26 elite swimmers on 2 occasions to estimate the pre-taper level of fatigue: at T0 and T1, scheduled respectively 10 and 3 weeks before the main competition. Sleep quantity and quality were also evaluated at T0 and T1. Race time was officially assessed at T0, T1 and during the main competition. The level of significance was set at p ≤ .05. Results: Fourteen swimmers (17 ± 2 years) were allocated to acute fatigue group (AF) and 12 swimmers (18 ± 2 years) to functional overreaching group (F-OR). From T1 to the main competition, performance was improved in AF (+1.80 ± 1.36%), while it was impaired in F-OR (-0.49 ± 1.58%, p < 0.05 vs. AF). Before taper period, total sleep time was lower in F-OR, as compared to AF. Conversely, the fragmentation index was higher in F-OR (p = .06). From wakefulness to sleep, body core temperature decreased in AF but not in F-OR. Discussion: Performance gain after tapering was higher in AF swimmers than in overreached. Moreover, pre-taper sleep was poorer in overreached swimmers, which could contribute to their different response to the same training load. This poorer sleep could be linked to a lower regulation of internal temperature.

Environmental heat stress offsets adaptation associated with carbohydrate periodization in trained male triathletes.

PURPOSE: Carbohydrate (CHO) intake periodization via the sleep low train low (SL-TL) diet-exercise model increases fat oxidation during exercise and may enhance endurance-training adaptation and performance. Conversely, training under environmental heat stress increases CHO oxidation, but the potential of combined SL-TL and heat stress to enhance metabolic and performance outcomes is unknown. METHODS: Twenty-three endurance-trained males were randomly assigned to either control (n = 7, CON), SL-TL (n = 8, SLTemp ) or SL-TL + heat stress (n = 8, SLHeat ) groups and prescribed identical 2-week cycling training interventions. CON and SLTemp completed all sessions at 20°C, but SLHeat at 35°C. All groups consumed matched CHO intake (6 g·kg-1 ·day-1 ) but timed differently to promote low CHO availability overnight and during morning exercise in both SL groups. Submaximal substrate utilization was assessed (at 20°C), and 30-min performance tests (at 20 and 35°C) were performed Pre-, Post-, and 1-week post-intervention (Post+1). RESULTS: SLTemp improved fat oxidation rates at 60% MAP (~66% VO2peak ) at Post+1 compared with CON (p < 0.01). Compared with SLTemp , fat oxidation rates were significantly lower in SLHeat at Post (p = 0.02) and Post+1 (p < 0.05). Compared with CON, performance was improved at Post in SLTemp in temperate conditions. Performance was not different between any groups or time points in hot conditions. CONCLUSION: SL-TL enhanced metabolic adaptation and performance compared with CON and combined SL-TL and heat stress. Additional environmental heat stress may impair positive adaptations associated with SL-TL.

Acute heat stress amplifies exercise-induced metabolomic perturbations and reveals variation in circulating amino acids in endurance-trained males.

NEW FINDINGS: What is the central question of this study? Whole-body substrate utilisation is altered during exercise in hot environments, characterised by increased glycolytic metabolism: does heat stress alter the serum metabolome in response to high intensity exercise? What are the main finding and its importance? Alongside increases in glycolytic metabolite abundance, circulating amino acid concentrations are reduced following exercise under heat stress. Prior research has overlooked the impact of heat stress on protein metabolism during exercise, raising important practical implications for protein intake recommendations in the heat. ABSTRACT: Using untargeted metabolomics, we aimed to characterise the systemic impact of environmental heat stress during exercise. Twenty-three trained male triathletes ( V ̇ O 2 peak ${\dot V_{{{\rm{O}}_2}{\rm{peak}}}}$  = 64.8 ± 9.2 ml kg min-1 ) completed a 30-min exercise test in hot (35°C) and temperate (21°C) conditions. Venous blood samples were collected immediately pre- and post-exercise, and the serum fraction was assessed via untargeted 1 H-NMR metabolomics. Data were analysed via uni- and multivariate analyses to identify differences between conditions. Mean power output was higher in temperate (231 ± 36 W) versus hot (223 ± 31 W) conditions (P < 0.001). Mean heart rate (temperate, 162 ± 10 beats min-1 , hot, 167 ± 9 beats min-1 , P < 0.001), peak core temperature (Trec ), core temperature change (ΔTrec ) (P < 0.001) and peak rating of perceived exertion (P = 0.005) were higher in hot versus temperate conditions. Change in metabolite abundance following exercise revealed distinct clustering following multivariate analysis. Six metabolites increased (2-hydroxyvaleric acid, acetate, alanine, glucarate, glucose, lactate) in hot relative to temperate (P < 0.05) conditions. Leucine and lysine decreased in both conditions but to a greater extent in temperate conditions (P < 0.05). Citrate (P = 0.04) was greater in temperate conditions whilst creatinine decreased in hot conditions only (P > 0.05). Environmental heat stress increased glycolytic metabolite abundance and led to distinct alterations in the circulating amino acid availability, including increased alanine, glutamine, leucine and isoleucine. The data highlight the need for additional exercise nutrition and metabolism research, specifically focusing on protein requirements for exercise under heat stress.

Comparison of A Single Vibration Foam Rolling and Static Stretching Exercise on the Muscle Function and Mechanical Properties of the Hamstring Muscles.

Knee extension and hip flexion range of motion (ROM) and functional performance of the hamstrings are of great importance in many sports. The aim of this study was to investigate if static stretching (SS) or vibration foam rolling (VFR) induce greater changes in ROM, functional performance, and stiffness of the hamstring muscles. Twenty-five male volunteers were tested on two appointments and were randomly assigned either to a 2 min bout of SS or VFR. ROM, counter movement jump (CMJ) height, maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) peak torque, passive resistive torque (PRT), and shear modulus of semitendinosus (ST), semimembranosus (SM), and biceps femoris (BFlh), were assessed before and after the intervention. In both groups ROM increased (SS = 7.7%, P < 0.01; VFR = 8.8%, P < 0.01). The MVIC values decreased after SS (-5.1%, P < 0.01) only. Shear modulus of the ST changed for -6.7% in both groups (VFR: P < 0.01; SS: P < 0.01). Shear modulus decreased in SM after VFR (-6.5%; P = 0.03) and no changes were observed in the BFlh in any group (VFR = -1%; SS = -2.9%). PRT and CMJ values did not change following any interventions. Our findings suggest that VFR might be a favorable warm-up routine if the goal is to acutely increase ROM without compromising functional performance.

Effects of a Single Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation Stretching Exercise With and Without Post-stretching Activation on the Muscle Function and Mechanical Properties of the Plantar Flexor Muscles.

A single proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching exercise can increase the range of motion (ROM) of a joint but can lead to a decrease in performance immediately after the stretching exercise. Post-stretching activation (PSA) exercises are known as a possible way to counteract such a drop in performance following a single stretching exercise. However, to date, no study has investigated the combination of PNF stretching with PSA. Thus, the aim of this study was to compare the effects of a PNF stretching exercise with and without PSA on the muscle function (e.g., ROM) and mechanical properties of the plantar flexor muscles. Eighteen physically active males volunteered in the study, which had a crossover design and a random order. The passive shear modulus of the gastrocnemius medialis (GM) and gastrocnemius lateralis (GL) was measured in a neutral position with shear wave elastography, both pre- and post-intervention. Maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) peak torque, maximum voluntary dynamic contraction peak torque, dorsiflexion ROM, and passive resistive torque (PRT) were also measured with a dynamometer. The interventions were 4×30s of PNF stretching (5s of contraction) and two sets of three exercises with 20 or 40 fast ground contacts (PNF stretching+PSA) and PNF stretching only. ROM was found to have increased in both groups (+4%). In addition, the PNF stretching+PSA group showed a decrease in PRT at a given angle (-7%) and a decrease in GM and mean shear modulus (GM+GL; -6%). Moreover, the MVIC peak torque decreased (-4%) only in the PNF stretching group (without PSA). Therefore, we conclude that, if PNF stretching is used as a warm-up exercise, target-muscle-specific PSA should follow to keep the performance output at the same level while maintaining the benefit of a greater ROM.

Neuromuscular Adaptations after an Altitude Training Camp in Elite Judo Athletes.

The aim of this study was to investigate neuromuscular adaptations in elite judo athletes after three weeks of power-oriented strength training at terrestrial altitude (2320 m). Nineteen men were assigned to altitude training (AL) (22.1 ± 2.3 years) and sea level training (SL) (22.6 ± 4.1 years). Neuromuscular assessment consisted of: (1) maximal isometric knee extensor (KE) torque, (2) KE rate of torque development (RTD), (3) quadriceps activity and voluntary activation, (4) soleus H-reflex, (5) quadriceps single (TTW) and double twitch torque (TDB100) and contraction time (CTTW). There were no significant differences between groups at baseline for any of the observed parameters. Significant differences were found between groups in terms of change in RTD (p = 0.04). Cohen's d showed a positive significant effect (0.43) in the SL group and a negative significant effect (-0.58) in the AL group. The difference between groups in changes in CTTW as a function of altitude was on the edge of significance (p = 0.077). CTTW increased by 8.1 ± 9.0% in the AL group (p = 0.036) and remained statistically unchanged in the SL group. Only the AL group showed a relationship between changes in TTW and TDB100 and changes in RTD at posttest (p = 0.022 and p = 0.016, respectively). Altitude induced differences in muscular adaptations likely due to greater peripheral fatigue.

Effects of Power-Oriented Resistance Training During an Altitude Camp on Strength and Technical Performance of Elite Judokas.

This study investigated the effect of a 3-week power-oriented resistance training program performed at moderate altitude on leg power output variables in a countermovement jump, a related judo technique (ippon-seoi-nage) and the relationship between them. Twenty-four elite male judokas were randomly assigned to a hypobaric hypoxia or normoxia group. Mechanical outputs from an incremental loaded countermovement jump test and the kinematic variables transferred to a dummy during an ippon-seoi-nage test (time to execution and movement accelerations) were assessed before, after, 1 and 2 weeks after training. Results indicated an increase in explosive leg capacity both at moderate altitude (2320 m.a.s.l.) and sea level. The hypoxia group showed additional benefits when compared to normoxia group for peak velocities with different percentages of the body weight, maximal theoretical velocity and jump height after the training period, and these additional benefits in jump height were maintained 2 weeks after training. The hypoxia group achieved a higher peak performance in peak velocity and jump height than normoxia group (peak velocity: 8.8 vs. 5.6%, jump height: 8.2 vs. 1.4%, respectively) and was achieved earlier in hypoxia (after training) than in normoxia (1 week after training). However, there was a detrimental effect for the hypoxia group on the times of execution and acceleration of the ippon-seoi-nage compared to the normoxia group. These results suggest that altitude training may induce faster and greater improvements in explosive leg extension capacity. Specific technique-oriented training should be included at altitude to prevent technique impairment.

A comparison of foam rolling and vibration foam rolling on the quadriceps muscle function and mechanical properties.

PURPOSE: The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of using a vibration foam roll (VFR) or a non-vibration foam roll (NVFR) on maximum voluntary isometric contraction peak torque (MVIC), range of motion (ROM), passive resistive torque (PRT), and shear modulus. METHODS: Twenty-one male volunteers visited the laboratory on two separate days and were randomly assigned to either a VFR group or a NVFR group. Both interventions were performed for 3 × 1 min each. Before and after each intervention, passive resistive torque and maximum voluntary isometric contraction peak torque of the leg extensors were assessed with a dynamometer. Hip extension ROM was assessed using a modified Thomas test with 3D-motion caption. Muscle shear modulus of the vastus lateralis (VL), vastus medialis (VM), and rectus femoris (RF) was assessed with shear wave elastography (SWE). RESULTS: In both groups (VFR, NVFR) we observed an increase in MVIC peak torque (+ 14.2 Nm, + 8.6 Nm) and a decrease in shear modulus of the RF (- 7.2 kPa, - 4.7 kPa). However, an increase in hip extension ROM (3.3°) was only observed in the VFR group. There was no change in PRT and shear modulus of the VL and VM, in both the VFR group and the NVFR group. Our findings demonstrate a muscle-specific acute decrease in passive RF stiffness after VFR and NVFR, with an effect on joint flexibility found only after VFR. CONCLUSION: The findings of this study suggest that VFR might be a more efficient approach to maximize performance in sports with flexibility demands.

Lower limb muscle injury location shift from posterior lower leg to hamstring muscles with increasing discipline-related running velocity in international athletics championships.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the rates of lower limb muscle injuries in athletics disciplines requiring different running velocities during international athletics championships. DESIGN: Prospective total population study. METHODS: During 13 international athletics championships (2009-2019) national medical teams and local organizing committee physicians daily reported all newly incurred injuries using the same study design, injury definition and data collection procedures. In-competition lower limb muscle injuries of athletes participating in disciplines involving running (i.e. sprints, hurdles, jumps, combined events, middle distances, long distances, and marathon) were analysed. RESULTS: Among the 12,233 registered athletes, 344 in-competition lower limb muscle injuries were reported (36% of all in-competition injuries). The proportion, incidence rates and injury burden of lower limb muscles injuries differed between disciplines for female and male athletes. The most frequently injured muscle group was hamstring in sprints, hurdles, jumps, combined events and male middle distances runners (43-75%), and posterior lower leg in female middle distances, male long distances, and female marathon runners (44-60%). Hamstring muscles injuries led to the highest burden in all disciplines, except for female middle distance and marathon and male long distance runners. Hamstring muscles injury burden was generally higher in disciplines requiring higher running velocities, and posterior lower leg muscle injuries higher in disciplines requiring lower running velocities. CONCLUSIONS: The present study shows discipline-specific injury location in competition context. Our findings suggest that the running velocity could be one of the factors that play a role in the occurrence/location of muscle injuries.

Exercise-Based Injury Prevention in High-Level and Professional Athletes: Narrative Review and Proposed Standard Operating Procedure for Future Lockdown-Like Contexts After COVID-19.

In regular times, implementing exercise-based injury prevention programs into the training routine of high-level and professional athletes represents a key and challenging aspect to decrease injury risk. Barriers to implementing such prevention programs have previously been identified such as lack of resources, logistic issues or motivation. The COVID-19 pandemic associated with restrictions on daily life dramatically impacted sports participation from training to competition. It is therefore reasonable to assume that such lockdown-like context has exacerbated the challenge to implement exercise-based injury prevention programs, potentially leading to a greater musculoskeletal injury risk. In this narrative review, recommendations are proposed for building an expertise- and evidence-based Standard Operating Procedure for injury prevention in lockdown-like contexts for high-level and professional athletes. The following recommendations can be provided: (1) assess the global and sport-specific risks in the light of the ongoing cause of isolation; (2) adapt remote training materials and programs; (3) ensure regular quality communication within the staff, between athletes and the staff as well as between athletes; (4) follow the athlete's mental well-being; and (5) plan for a safe return-to-sports as well as for an ongoing monitoring of the load-recovery balance. These key domains should further be addressed to comply with local policies, which are subject to change over time in each individual country. The use of these recommendations may improve the readiness of athletes, coaches, physicians and all sports stakeholders for future lockdown-like contexts.

Load-Velocity Relationship in Variations of the Half-Squat Exercise: Influence of Execution Technique.

Pérez-Castilla, A, García-Ramos, A, Padial, P, Morales-Artacho, AJ, and Feriche, B. Load-velocity relationship in variations of the half-squat exercise: influence of execution technique. J Strength Cond Res 34(4): 1024-1031, 2020-Previous studies have revealed that the velocity of the bar can be used to determine the intensity of different resistance training exercises. However, the load-velocity relationship seems to be exercise dependent. This study aimed to compare the load-velocity relationship obtained from 2 variations of the half-squat exercise (traditional vs. ballistic) using 2 execution techniques (eccentric-concentric vs. concentric-only). Twenty men performed a submaximal progressive loading test in 4 half-squat exercises: eccentric-concentric traditional-squat, concentric-only traditional-squat, countermovement jump (i.e., ballistic squat using the eccentric-concentric technique), and squat jump (i.e., ballistic squat using the concentric-only technique). Individual linear regressions were used to estimate the 1 repetition maximum (1RM) for each half-squat exercise. Thereafter, another linear regression was applied to establish the relationship between the relative load (%RM) and mean propulsive velocity (MPV). For all exercises, a strong relationship was observed between %RM and MPV: eccentric-concentric traditional-squat (R = 0.949), concentric-only traditional-squat (R = 0.920), countermovement jump (R = 0.957), and squat jump (R = 0.879). The velocities associated with each %RM were higher for the ballistic variation and the eccentric-concentric technique than for the traditional variation and concentric-only technique, respectively. Differences in velocity among the half-squat exercises decreased with the increment in the relative load. These results demonstrate that the MPV can be used to predict exercise intensity in the 4 half-squat exercises. However, independent regressions are required for each half-squat exercise because the load-velocity relationship proved to be task specific.

Force-Velocity Relationship in the Countermovement Jump Exercise Assessed by Different Measurement Methods.

This study aimed to compare force, velocity, and power output collected under different loads, as well as the force-velocity (F-V) relationship between three measurement methods. Thirteen male judokas were tested under four loading conditions (20, 40, 60, and 80 kg) in the countermovement jump (CMJ) exercise, while mechanical output data were collected by three measurement methods: the Samozino's method (SAM), a force platform (FP), and a linear velocity transducer (LVT). The variables of the linear F-V relationship (maximum force [F0], maximum velocity [V0], F-V slope, and maximum power [P0]) were determined. The results revealed that (1) the LVT overestimated the mechanical output as compared to the SAM and FP methods, especially under light loading conditions, (2) the SAM provided the lowest magnitude for all mechanical output, (3) the F-V relationships were highly linear either for the SAM (r = 0.99), FP (r = 0.97), and LVT (r = 0.96) methods, (4) the F-V slope obtained by the LVT differed with respect to the other methods due to a larger V0 (5.28 ± 1.48 m·s-1) compared to the SAM (2.98 ± 0.64 m·s-1) and FP (3.06 ± 0.42 m·s-1), and (5) the methods were significantly correlated for F0 and P0, but not for V0 or F-V slope. These results only support the accuracy of the SAM and FP to determine the F-V relationship during the CMJ exercise. The very large correlations of the SAM and LVT methods with respect to the FP (presumed gold-standard) for the mean values of force, velocity and power support their concurrent validity for the assessment of mechanical output under individual loads.

Muscle Activation During Power-Oriented Resistance Training: Continuous vs. Cluster Set Configurations.

Morales-Artacho, AJ, García-Ramos, A, Pérez-Castilla, A, Padial, P, Gomez, AM, Peinado, AM, Pérez-Córdoba, JL, and Feriche, B. Muscle activation during power-oriented resistance training: continuous vs. cluster set configurations. J Strength Cond Res 33(7S): S95-S102, 2019-This study examined performance and electromyography (EMG) changes during a power training protocol comprising continuous or clustered set configurations. Eighteen active males completed 6 sets of 6 repetitions during the loaded (20% 1 repetition maximum) countermovement jump (CMJ) exercise, continuously (n = 9) or with a 30-second pause every 2 repetitions (cluster; n = 9). Power output, vastus lateralis (VL), vastus medialis (VM), and rectus femoris (RF) EMG were recorded during all CMJs. Relative changes from the first repetition were assessed on the EMG root mean square (RMS), median frequency (Fmed), and a low- to high-frequency ratio index of fatigue (FInsmk). Greater power output decrements were observed during the continuous set configuration (p = 0.001, (Equation is included in full-text article.)< 0.01). Greater RMS increments in VL (6.8 ± 11.3 vs. -1.7 ± 5.8%) and RF (9.3 ± 14.2 vs. 1.9 ± 6.9%), but not VM (2.0 ± 4.7 vs. 2.6 ± 7.3%), were also observed in the continuous compared with the cluster sets (p = 0.033, (Equation is included in full-text article.)= 0.06). Progressive decrements in Fmed and increments in FInsmk were observed across repetitions in both set configurations. In conclusion, although clustering sets between repetitions clearly maintained power output, mixed responses were observed on the examined EMG parameters.

Associations of the Force-velocity Profile with Isometric Strength and Neuromuscular Factors.

We aimed to explore relationships between the force-velocity (FV) profile and the isometric muscle torque performance during a knee extension task. The FV profile (force-intercept [F0], velocity-intercept [V0], maximum power [Pmax], and FV slope) during the countermovement jump (CMJ) exercise and isometric maximum voluntary torque (MVIC) and explosive voluntary torque production were assessed in 43 participants. Electromyography (EMG) was recorded during the isometric assessments and resting muscle architecture measurements were also performed (quadriceps thickness, vastus lateralis pennation angle and fascicle length). Pearson's correlation coefficients were computed to assess bivariate relationships between the FV profile, isometric torque, EMG activation and muscle architecture. F0 predictions from neuromuscular measurements were assessed through multiple linear regression. Associations of F0 and Pmax with isometric torque increased from explosive to MVIC torque (r≥0.47; P<0.05). Significant associations were found between muscle architecture and F0 and Pmax (r≥0.69; P<0.05), while V0 and FV slope were unrelated (r≤0.27; P>0.05). Quadriceps thickness and VL pennation angle explained ~62% of F0 variance. In conclusion, the knee extensors maximal isometric strength and their morphological architecture are strongly related to F0 estimated from a CMJ FV profile test.

Effect of acute exposure to moderate altitude on kinematic variables of the ippon-seoi-nage and its relationship with the countermovement jump in elite judokas.

This study aimed to assess the effect of acute exposure to moderate altitude on kinematic variables of the ippon-seoi-nage and on the mechanical outputs of the countermovement jump (CMJ). Thirteen elite male judokas from the Spanish Judo Training Centre in Valencia (age: 21.54 ± 2.15 years) participated in the study. All of them performed an incremental CMJ test and an ippon-seoi-nage technique test before (N) and after the ascent to a moderate altitude of 2320 m above the sea level (H). A linear velocity transducer was attached to the bar to assess the mechanical outputs of each loaded CMJ at different percentages of their own body weight (25, 50, 75 and 100%). A wearable sensor was used to assess the kinematic variables (times, accelerations and angular velocities) transferred to a dummy during the technique test. The kinematic variables showed great individual reliability (CV = 8.46% in N; CV = 8.37% in H), which contrasted with low reliability observed when the whole group was considered. The smallest important CV ratio (>1.15) showed that H caused changes in the reliability of the kinematic variables, with some variables becoming more reliable and others losing the reliability they had in N. H also caused small increments in peak velocity across all loads tested in the CMJ (+3.67%; P<0.05). In contrast, no changes in the kinematic variables were verified. In addition, there was no association between leg extension capability and the acceleration (r = -0.16 ± 0.19 in N; r = -0.24 ± 0.19 in H) or angular velocity (r = -0.19 ± 0.24 in N; r = -0.30 ± 0.26 in H) of the ippon-seoi-nage, nor was acute exposure to H found to affect this association (P>0.05). Differences between individual and within-groups CV confirm the individual adaptations that each judoka makes during this technique. Additionally, the CV ratio shows a change in the space-time pattern of the technique in H. Therefore, it would be necessary to include an adaptation period to adapt the technique after the ascent in altitude. Further studies are needed to confirm the relationship and transference from the velocity gains in CMJ during altitude training.

Correction: Physiological responses to acute cold exposure in young lean men.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0196543.].

Intermittent Resistance Training at Moderate Altitude: Effects on the Force-Velocity Relationship, Isometric Strength and Muscle Architecture.

Intermittent hypoxic resistance training (IHRT) may help to maximize the adaptations following resistance training, although conflicting evidence is available. The aim of this study was to explore the influence of moderate altitude on the functional, neural and muscle architecture responses of the quadriceps muscles following a power-oriented IHRT intervention. Twenty-four active males completed two 4-week consecutive training blocks comprising general strengthening exercises (weeks 1-4) and power-oriented resistance training (weeks 5-8). Training sessions were conducted twice a week at moderate altitude (2320 m; IHRT, n = 13) or normoxia (690 m; NT, n = 11). Training intensity during the second training block was set to the individual load corresponding to a barbell mean propulsive velocity of 1 m·s-1. Pre-post assessments, performed under normoxic conditions, comprised quadriceps muscle architecture (thickness, pennation angle and fascicle length), isometric maximal (MVF) and explosive strength, and voluntary muscle activation. Dynamic strength performance was assessed through the force-velocity relationship (F0, V0, P0) and a repeated CMJ test (CMJ15MP). Region-specific muscle thickness changes were observed in both training groups (p < 0.001, ηG2 = 0.02). A small opposite trend in pennation angle changes was observed (ES [90% CI]: -0.33 [-0.65, -0.01] vs. 0.11 [-0.44, 0.6], in the IHRT and NT group, respectively; p = 0.094, ηG2 = 0.02). Both training groups showed similar improvements in MVF (ES: 0.38 [0.20, 0.56] vs. 0.55 [0.29, 0.80], in the IHRT and NT group, respectively; p = 0.645, ηG2 < 0.01), F0 (ES: 0.41 [-0.03, 0.85] vs. 0.52 [0.04, 0.99], in the IHRT and NT group, respectively; p = 0.569, ηG2 < 0.01) and P0 (ES: 0.53 [0.07, 0.98] vs. 0.19 [-0.06, 0.44], in the IHRT and NT group, respectively; p = 0.320, ηG2 < 0.01). No meaningful changes in explosive strength performance were observed. In conclusion, contrary to earlier adverse associations between altitude and resistance-training muscle adaptations, similar anatomical and functional muscle strength responses can be achieved in both environmental conditions. The observed region-specific muscle thickness changes may encourage further research on the potential influence of IHRT on muscle morphological changes.

Physiological responses to acute cold exposure in young lean men.

The aim of this study was to comprehensively describe the physiological responses to an acute bout of mild cold in young lean men (n = 11, age: 23 ± 2 years, body mass index: 23.1 ± 1.2 kg/m2) to better understand the underlying mechanisms of non-shivering thermogenesis and how it is regulated. Resting energy expenditure, substrate metabolism, skin temperature, thermal comfort perception, superficial muscle activity, hemodynamics of the forearm and abdominal regions, and heart rate variability were measured under warm conditions (22.7 ± 0.2°C) and during an individualized cooling protocol (air-conditioning and water cooling vest) in a cold room (19.4 ± 0.1°C). The temperature of the cooling vest started at 16.6°C and decreased ~ 1.4°C every 10 minutes until participants shivered (93.5 ± 26.3 min). All measurements were analysed across 4 periods: warm period, at 31% and at 64% of individual´s cold exposure time until shivering occurred, and at the shivering threshold. Energy expenditure increased from warm period to 31% of cold exposure by 16.7% (P = 0.078) and to the shivering threshold by 31.7% (P = 0.023). Fat oxidation increased by 72.6% from warm period to 31% of cold exposure (P = 0.004), whereas no changes occurred in carbohydrates oxidation. As shivering came closer, the skin temperature and thermal comfort perception decreased (all P<0.05), except in the supraclavicular skin temperature, which did not change (P>0.05). Furthermore, the superficial muscle activation increased at the shivering threshold. It is noteworthy that the largest physiological changes occurred during the first 30 minutes of cold exposure, when the participants felt less discomfort.

Influence of a Cluster Set Configuration on the Adaptations to Short-Term Power Training.

Morales-Artacho, AJ, Padial, P, García-Ramos, A, Pérez-Castilla, A, and Feriche, B. Influence of a cluster set configuration on the adaptations to short-term power training. J Strength Cond Res 32(4): 930-937, 2018-This study investigated the effects of a traditional (TT) vs. cluster (CT) resistance training on the lower-body force, velocity, and power output. Nineteen males were allocated to a CT or a TT group and took part of a 3-week resistance training (2 weekly sessions). CT involved 6 sets of 3 × 2 repetitions (30 seconds rest every 2 repetitions and 4 minutes 30 seconds between sets). TT comprised 6 sets of 6 continuous repetitions (5 minutes rest between sets). Before and after the training period, force (F25, F50, F75), velocity (V25, V50, V75), and power (P25, P50, P75) were obtained during the countermovement jump (CMJ) exercise at 3 external loading conditions (25, 50, and 75% of body mass). Individual linear regressions were used to determine the force-velocity profile including the Slope, estimated maximal theoretical force (F0), velocity (V0), and power (P0). After CT, very-likely moderate increments in P25 were observed compared with TT (p = 0.011, ES = 0.55) because of a very-likely moderate rise in V25 (p = 0.001, ES = 0.71). No significant differences were observed in any of the F-v profile variables between the TT and CT groups (p ≥ 0.207, ES ≤ 0.31). Our results suggest that 3 weeks of muscle power training including cluster set configurations are more efficient at inducing velocity and power adaptations specific to the training load.

Optimal Resistive Forces for Maximizing the Reliability of Leg Muscles' Capacities Tested on a Cycle Ergometer.

This study determined the optimal resistive forces for testing muscle capacities through the standard cycle ergometer test (1 resistive force applied) and a recently developed 2-point method (2 resistive forces used for force-velocity modelling). Twenty-six men were tested twice on maximal sprints performed on a leg cycle ergometer against 5 flywheel resistive forces (R1-R5). The reliability of the cadence and maximum power measured against the 5 individual resistive forces, as well as the reliability of the force-velocity relationship parameters obtained from the selected 2-point methods (R1-R2, R1-R3, R1-R4, and R1-R5), were compared. The reliability of outcomes obtained from individual resistive forces was high except for R5. As a consequence, the combination of R1 (≈175 rpm) and R4 (≈110 rpm) provided the most reliable 2-point method (CV: 1.46%-4.04%; ICC: 0.89-0.96). Although the reliability of power capacity was similar for the R1-R4 2-point method (CV: 3.18%; ICC: 0.96) and the standard test (CV: 3.31%; ICC: 0.95), the 2-point method should be recommended because it also reveals maximum force and velocity capacities. Finally, we conclude that the 2-point method in cycling should be based on 2 distant resistive forces, but avoiding cadences below 110 rpm.