Accelerating Visual Anticipation in Sport Through Temporal Occlusion Training: A Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: The video-based temporal occlusion paradigm has been consistently used in visual anticipation sport research. OBJECTIVE: This meta-analysis investigated the magnitude to which video-based temporal occlusion training could improve anticipation skill with transfer to representative laboratory and field tasks. METHODS: As there are considerably fewer anticipation training than performance studies, the meta-analysis included 12 intervention studies with 25 effect sizes where video simulation and/or field-based tests were used. The Downs and Black checklist adapted for sports science research was used to assess methodological quality of the included studies. Decision time and accuracy of anticipation were the outcome measures because both are relevant to sports skills. The changes in these measures between experimental and control groups from baseline to the transfer test context were used to calculate the magnitude of the training effect. RESULTS: Findings revealed a significant training effect, including a large meta-analytic effect size, and no difference in training benefit across video and field-based transfer tests. Publication bias analyses were inconclusive, likely due to the small number of available studies. CONCLUSIONS: These findings are evidence that the temporal occlusion paradigm is an effective method to improve visual anticipation skill across representative perceptual and perceptual-motor transfer tests. The theoretical implication based upon the two-stage model of visual anticipation is that temporal occlusion training can improve use of early information for body positioning by the performer, which could in turn lead to improved execution of the skill goal.

Temporal samples of visual information guides skilled interception.

This study investigated whether performance of an interceptive skill requires an intact visual-perception-action cycle. Eleven skilled male Australian rules football athletes (Mage = 17.54, SD = 0.15) were recruited from an elite developmental pathway squad for a within-subject study. Participants were required to kick a ball directly at a goal from a 20-meter distance while wearing a pair of stroboscopic glasses. The glasses were used to create four vision conditions. Condition one kept intact the visual-perception-action cycle with uninterrupted vision of the motor skill. Three other conditions included stroboscopic vision that presented temporal samples of vision, which interrupted the perception-action cycle through progressive increases to intermittent vision occlusion of the motor skill. Goal kick error of ball position relative to a central target line within the goal and number of successful goals kicked were measured. Written report of internal and external focus of attention was also measured after each vision condition. Generalized estimating equation analysis did not reveal a significant decrement in kick target error, nor accuracy of goals scored, across normal to stroboscopic vision conditions. Performance was maintained despite a shift in attention focus from external to internal across normal to stroboscopic vision conditions. These findings have theoretical and practical implications for the visual regulation of skilled interceptive actions.

Attributes of Expert Anticipation Should Inform the Design of Virtual Reality Simulators to Accelerate Learning and Transfer of Skill.

Expert sport performers cope with a multitude of visual information to achieve precise skill goals under time stress and pressure. For example, a major league baseball or cricket batter must read opponent variations in actions and ball flight paths to strike the ball in less than a second. Crowded playing schedules and training load restrictions to minimise injury have limited opportunity for field-based practice in sports. As a result, many sports organisations are exploring the use of virtual reality (VR) simulators. Whilst VR synthetic experiences can allow greater control of visual stimuli, immersion to create presence in an environment, and interaction with stimuli, compared to traditional video simulation, the underpinning mechanisms of how experts use visual information for anticipation have not been properly incorporated into its content design. In themes, this opinion article briefly explains the mechanisms underpinning expert visual anticipation, as well as its learning and transfer, with a view that this knowledge can better inform VR simulator content design. In each theme, examples are discussed for improved content design of VR simulators taking into consideration its advantages and limitations relative to video simulation techniques. Whilst sport is used as the exemplar, the points discussed have implications for skill learning in other domains, such as military and law enforcement. It is hoped that our paper will stimulate improved content design of VR simulators for future research and skill enhancement across several domains.

Individual Differences and Transfer of Visual Anticipation in Expert Female Field Hockey Goalkeepers.

SIGNIFICANCE: Visual anticipation is vital for performance in several domains such as driving, military, and high-speed interceptive sports, as it enables performers to handle severe time constraints. There has been little investigation into individual differences of anticipation skill transfer within a domain, which can guide training of anticipation to improve performance. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to investigate individual differences in the transfer of anticipation within a domain, specifically anticipation of the field hockey penalty corner drag-flick across different opponents. METHODS: Eight female Australian international and national field hockey goalkeepers participated. Goalkeepers completed female and male opponent penalty corner drag-flick temporal occlusion tests that presented contextual defensive runner positioning relative to the penalty spot, drag-flicker kinematics, and ball flight. RESULTS: Drag-flick movement time and ball velocity were significantly different across female and male opponents confirming that a transfer continuum existed. Five goalkeepers could transfer integration of runner contextual and drag-flicker kinematic information to anticipate loose runs above chance from female to male opponent tests. None of the goalkeepers could transfer integration of contextual and kinematic information for the tight runs across female to male opponents. CONCLUSIONS: An individual differences approach with truly expert performers provided unique insights into the mechanism of anticipation transfer within a domain. The findings of this study contribute to theoretical and applied knowledge, which can guide the training of anticipation skill to prepare individuals for superior performance.