Self-Perceptions of Attractiveness and Offending During Adolescence.

Despite a well-established body of research demonstrating that others' evaluations of a person's physical attractiveness carry significant meaning, researchers have largely ignored how self-perceptions of physical attractiveness relate to offending behaviors. Applying general strain theory and using eight waves of panel data from the Adolescent Academic Context Study, we explore how self-perceptions of attractiveness relate to offending as youth progress through school. Results demonstrate that youth who perceive themselves as more attractive engage in more-not less-offending. Depression, which is treated as a form of negative affect, does not appear to mediate this relationship. We conclude by raising attention to the possibility that being "good-looking" may actually be a key risk factor for crime.

Discrimination and Risky Sexual Behavior, Substance Use, and Suicidality among Transgender Individuals.

Transgender identities are becoming increasingly common in the United States, and existing research provides ample evidence that risky sexual behaviors, substance use, and suicidality are prevalent experiences among transgender persons. Yet, prior research provides little insight into understanding the specific mechanisms that may promote deviant outcomes among transgender persons. Drawing from an aspect of general strain theory, the goal of this study is to examine the extent to which transwomen and transmen vary in risky sexual behaviors, substance use, and suicidality, and to explore the degree to which discrimination - as a source of strain - plays a role within this process. An analysis of data from transgender individuals from the Virginia Transgender Health Initiative Study (THIS) demonstrates that transwomen and transmen significantly diverge in self-reported risky sexual behaviors, substance use, and suicidality. Greater discrimination based on transgender identity relates to significantly increased odds of suicidality and elevated levels of substance use, but does not relate to risky sexual behavior. Overall, effects of discrimination on each outcome are similar for both transwomen and transmen.

Carbon Capture, Employment, and Coming Home from Prison.

Finding and securing employment is a huge challenge for those who have been released from prison. In this paper, we argue that carbon capture technology carries the unique potential to positively impact employment opportunities for those who are undergoing the reentry process. Notably, these careers exist nearly entirely in industries which already employ ex-felons. If carbon capture technology were implemented throughout the United States, our estimates suggest that ex-felons would be eligible for nearly 3.6 million careers. Many of these jobs would be created in industries which directly or indirectly support natural resource extraction, ethanol production, electricity generation, and iron, steel, and cement production. In addition to benefiting the economy, these careers would provide returning individuals with financial security and supportive, prosocial peer relationships. Accordingly, carbon capture carries the unique ability to promote environmental justice while simultaneously providing relief to a tremendously overburdened criminal justice system.

Youth Reentry from Prison and Family Violence Perpetration: the Salience of Family Dynamics.

The central role of family within the process of juvenile reentry from a term of incarceration has been well documented by researchers and practitioners alike. However, family violence among previously incarcerated youth remains alarmingly high across the United States. Drawing from differential coercion and social support theory, we examine how family dynamics may simultaneously promote and/or inhibit family violence perpetration among youth undergoing the process of reentry. Four waves of panel data from the male-only youth subsample of the Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative are analyzed using a series of dynamic panel data models. Findings demonstrate that both pre- and post-release levels of family conflict are significantly associated with increased family violence during reintegration. Mechanisms of family support, however, are not associated with post-release family violence. Results from this study highlight the salience of family conflict in understanding family violence perpetration among recently released juveniles and their families.

The Effect of Individual Characteristics and Supervision Experiences on the Perceived Quality of the Supervision Relationship.

Research has shown that high-quality relationships between individuals on probation/parole and their supervising officers can reduce recidivism and increase compliance. Although this relationship clearly matters, little attention has been given to understanding the factors that influence this relationship. Drawing on research in psychology and counseling, this study explores how both individual characteristics and supervision experiences affect the perceived quality of the supervision relationship. Results from the Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative (SVORI) reveal that both individual characteristics-such as mental health and family support-and supervision experiences-such as the use of sanctions and incentives-exert significant effects on the supervision relationship. Yet, the effects of supervision experiences were substantially more robust than the individual characteristics. Findings suggest community supervision agencies should prioritize positive supervision experiences to build positive relationships between the returning person and supervising officer.

More than Just a Flock? The Independent and Interdependent Nature of Peer Self-Control on Deviance.

The goal of this study is to test whether a peer's self-control is related to deviance and whether it conditions the extent to which an actor's self-control is related to deviance. To examine these research questions, the study begins by highlighting a series of theoretical inconsistencies in expected direction of peer effects in Gottfredson and Hirschi's self-control theory. Using dyadic data, crime is regressed onto measures of attitudinal and behavioral self-control from the actor and the friend. Regardless of how self-control is measured, findings demonstrate that the peer's self-control relates to deviance. Additionally, peer self-control independently and interdependently relates to deviant involvement. Peer self-control is meaningful for deviance in multiple ways among people in friendships, thereby suggesting that the importance of peer self-control on offending behaviors is greater than just being part of a flock.

Correction to: School Security Measures and Longitudinal Trends in Adolescents' Experiences of Victimization.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Strain and Depression following Release from Prison: The Moderating Role of Social Support Mechanisms on Substance Use.

Research on prison reentry shows that individuals with depression turn to substances to cope with the stress of reintegration. While social support drawn from families, peers, and institutions may help returning individuals avoid substance use, it is unclear how social support might condition the link between depression and substance use. Using longitudinal panel data from the Serious and Violent and Offender Reentry Initiative, results from mixed-models demonstrate that depression is significantly associated with increased substance use. Family support, but not peer support, is tied to lower use, and institutional support relates to decreased alcohol use but increased illicit drug use.

Animal Abuse among High-Risk Youth: A Test of Agnew's Theory.

Concern over animal abuse among policy-makers, law enforcement officials, and the general public remains high. Although research has marked animal abuse as an indicator of a variety of deviant outcomes, fewer projects have examined the correlates of cruelty towards animals. In this study, we apply Agnew's theory of animal abuse to explore how a wide-range of characteristics relate to deviance towards animals. In support of Agnew's theory, results reveal that a combination of individual traits and behaviors, socialization experiences, and mechanisms of social control significantly relate to animal abuse. However, measures of strain do not appear to relate to animal abuse, providing only partial support to the theory.

Examining the Parole Officer as a Mechanism of Social Support During Reentry From Prison.

Emerging research has shown that the parole officer, much like friends and family, can be an important source of social support for returning persons. While this body of literature is growing, existing research provides little insight into understanding how specific types (e.g., interpersonal and/or professional) of parole officer support matter. Using panel data from the Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative, results of mixed-effects models demonstrate that greater levels of parole officer support are associated with decreased odds of reincarceration. Furthermore, parole officer professional support (e.g., providing correct information) exerts a more robust effect than interpersonal support (e.g., listening and caring). Findings suggest policy makers should consider programming to strengthen the professional relationship between the parole officer and returning person.

The Effect of School Discipline on Offending across Time.

Despite decreases in offending and victimization in schools across the United States, many schools continue to use exclusionary discipline. Although school punishment has been tied to a variety of negative outcomes, the link between suspension and offending remains unclear. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997, this study examines the extent to which school punishment contributes to within-individual increases in offending across time and/or amplifies offending between-individuals. Results of a series of cross-lagged dynamic fixed-effects panel models reveal that school suspensions contribute to within-individual increases in offending. This relationship remains even when accounting for the effect of baseline levels of offending on future offending. Further, repeated suspensions amplify offending differences between-individuals.

Exploring the School-to-Prison Pipeline: How School Suspensions Influence Incarceration During Young Adulthood.

A growing body of research has evoked the life-course perspective to understand how experiences in school relate to a wide range of longer term life outcomes. This is perhaps best typified by the notion of the school-to-prison pipeline which refers to a process by which youth who experience punitive punishment in schools are increasingly enmeshed within the criminal justice system. While this metaphor is commonly accepted, few studies have examined the extent to which exclusionary school discipline significantly alters pathways toward incarceration as youth transition into young adulthood. Applying a life-course perspective and leveraging 15 waves of data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997, this study examines how school suspensions influence the odds of imprisonment during young adulthood. Mixed-effects longitudinal models demonstrate that receiving a suspension serves as a key turning point toward increased odds of incarceration, even after accounting for key covariates including levels of criminal offending. However, results show that repeated suspensions do not appear to confer additional risk of incarceration. Results carry implications for the ways in which school punishment impacts youths' life-course.

Examining the Moderating Role of Social Bonds in the Relationship between School Victimization and Educational Attainment.

School victimization affects a relatively small proportion of students each year, but this victimization may have long-term effects on a child's life trajectory, including graduating high school and enrolling in college. Social bond theory posits that bonds - like commitment and involvement - may buffer the harmful effects of victimization. This research uses the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (n = 16,197) to examine the moderating role of social bonds between school victimization and these measures of educational attainment. The results of the study using moderation showed that student victimization does not affect graduating high school nor enrolling in college. The relationship between student victimization and these educational outcomes is partially moderated by involvement, but not commitment.

(Re)Recognizing the multidimensional roles of family and peers on crime.

Social scientists have long recognized the salience of family and peers in understanding the etiology of crime and delinquency. Although criminologists universally acknowledge that family and peers can each exert prosocial and antisocial influences on offending behaviors, this area of study has gradually divided into a "good" and "bad" dichotomy. Specifically, family tends to be viewed and measured as a key factor that protects against offending. In stark contrast, peers tend to be viewed and measured as key correlates toward offending. In the following discussion, we explore the historical roots of this tendency through examining how key theoretical perspectives have shaped this dichotomy and informed current perspectives on the link between family, peers, and crime. We then highlight how some studies have stepped outside of this dichotomy to consider the independent and interdependent roles of family and peers as both positive and negative influences on offending behaviors. Overall, there is nothing new about understanding peers and family as both prosocial and criminogenic in their influences; rather, there is a greater need to (re)recognize these multifaceted roles in modern criminological studies.

Unpacking the Role of Conflict in Peer Relationships: Implications for Peer Deviance and Crime.

Although criminologists have long recognized the role that peers play in crime, the specific mechanisms responsible for this relationship have been difficult to isolate. Drawing from the perspectives of differential coercion and social support and differential association, we examine how one type of coercion among friends - conflict - moderates the peer deviance/crime relationship. Using dyadic data, greater levels of conflict are related to higher levels of deviance and conflict weakens the peer deviance-crime relationship. Overall, conflict plays a dual role by relating to higher amounts of deviance while jointly reducing the influence of peer deviance on crime.

The "Other Side of The Fence": A Learning- And Control-Based Investigation Of The Relationship Between Deviance And Friendship Quality.

Utilizing frameworks of social control and differential association theories, this study addresses the extent to which deviance (a predictor) is related to friendship quality (the outcome). Using dyadic data, results demonstrate that the highest estimates of friendship quality come from actors who have non-deviant friends and who also refrain from theft and violence themselves. Shared deviance within the friendship, referred to as 'homophily,' harms friendship quality, although it does not mediate or moderate the deviance - friendship quality link. Overall, deviance relates to friendship quality in a way that supports a bonding tradition more than a learning tradition.

The Relationship Between Self-Control and Friendship Conflict: An analysis of Friendship Pairs.

While Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory of crime is one of the most empirically tested theories of deviance, the theory offers hypotheses that range far beyond how self-control should affect behavior. This study is broadly focused on how self-control operates between friends by considering how the general theory's main construct relates to friendship conflict. Using a large dyadic dataset, three-level hybrid item-response models regress the actor's proclivity to experience conflict with the friend onto measures of the actor's self-control, the friend's self-control, and an interaction between the self-control estimates. Results demonstrate that the actor's and the friend's self-control both significantly relate to friendship conflict, as the theory would expect. However, the actor's and friend's levels of self-control do not interact.

A national study of sustained use of force complaints in law enforcement agencies.

PURPOSE: This article examines how community and departmental characteristics relate to the number of sustained use of force complaints in a law enforcement agency. METHODS: Using national-level data from Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics 2007, Uniform Crime Reports 2007, American Community Survey 2009 and bivariate and multivariate techniques, we investigate whether sustained uses of force vary across 1) community and regional characteristics in the U.S. and across departmental 2) policies, 3) training tendencies, and 4) hiring practices. RESULTS: Controlling for region, crime rate, and area median income, results demonstrate that sustained complaints increase when departments serve large, nonwhite populations. Regarding departmental policies, results are alarming: Departments with independent civilian complaint review boards, agencies which engage in community policing, and departments that implement personality tests when hiring sustain significantly higher numbers of use of force complaints. However, departments that screen for volunteer and community service histories in officer candidates have over one third fewer sustained complaints than departments that do not use this hiring screen. CONCLUSIONS: In order to significantly reduce the amount of sustained complaints against a department, results suggest that agencies should assess community service and volunteer histories for potential officer candidates.

Social Learning, Self-Control, and Offending Specialization and Versatility among Friends.

While it is generally understood that people tend not to specialize in specific types of deviance, less is understood about offending specialization and versatility in the context of friendships. Using a large sample of persons nested within friendship pairs, this study's goal is to explore how self-control and social learning theories contribute to an explanation for specialization and versatility in offending among friends. We estimate a series of multilevel, dyadic, mixed-effects models which regress offending versatility onto measures of perceptual peer versatility, self-reported peer versatility, attitudinal self-control, behavioral self-control, and demographic controls. Results indicate that higher amounts of perceptual peer versatility and peer self-reported versatility are both related to increases in versatility among friends. Lower levels of the target respondent's attitudinal and behavioral self-control are also related to higher amounts of offending versatility. However, the peer's self-control shares no relationship with offending versatility - a point which both supports and fails to support self-control theory's expectations about how peer effects should operate. Learning and self-control perspectives both appear to explain offending versatility among friends. However, self-control theory's propositions about how peer effects should operate are contradictory. The concept of opportunity may help remediate this inconsistency in Gottfredson and Hirschi's theory.