A Dempster-Shafer Approach to Trustworthy AI With Application to Fetal Brain MRI Segmentation.

Deep learning models for medical image segmentation can fail unexpectedly and spectacularly for pathological cases and images acquired at different centers than training images, with labeling errors that violate expert knowledge. Such errors undermine the trustworthiness of deep learning models for medical image segmentation. Mechanisms for detecting and correcting such failures are essential for safely translating this technology into clinics and are likely to be a requirement of future regulations on artificial intelligence (AI). In this work, we propose a trustworthy AI theoretical framework and a practical system that can augment any backbone AI system using a fallback method and a fail-safe mechanism based on Dempster-Shafer theory. Our approach relies on an actionable definition of trustworthy AI. Our method automatically discards the voxel-level labeling predicted by the backbone AI that violate expert knowledge and relies on a fallback for those voxels. We demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed trustworthy AI approach on the largest reported annotated dataset of fetal MRI consisting of 540 manually annotated fetal brain 3D T2w MRIs from 13 centers. Our trustworthy AI method improves the robustness of four backbone AI models for fetal brain MRIs acquired across various centers and for fetuses with various brain abnormalities.

Longitudinal MRI in the context of in utero surgery for open spina bifida: A descriptive study.

INTRODUCTION: Fetal surgery for open spina bifida (OSB) requires comprehensive preoperative assessment using imaging for appropriate patient selection and to evaluate postoperative efficacy and complications. We explored patient access and conduct of fetal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for prenatal assessment of OSB patients eligible for fetal surgery. We compared imaging acquisition and reporting to the International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology MRI performance guidelines. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We surveyed access to fetal MRI for OSB in referring fetal medicine units (FMUs) in the UK and Ireland, and two NHS England specialist commissioned fetal surgery centers (FSCs) at University College London Hospital, and University Hospitals KU Leuven Belgium. To study MRI acquisition protocols, we retrospectively analyzed fetal MRI images before and after fetal surgery for OSB. RESULTS: MRI for fetal OSB was accessible with appropriate specialists available to supervise, perform, and report scans. The average time to arrange a fetal MRI appointment from request was 4 ± 3 days (range, 0-10), the average scan time available was 37 ± 16 min (range, 20-80 min), with 15 ± 11 min (range, 0-30 min) extra time to repeat sequences as required. Specific MRI acquisition protocols, and MRI reporting templates were available in only 32% and 18% of units, respectively. Satisfactory T2-weighted (T2W) brain imaging acquired in three orthogonal planes was achieved preoperatively in all centers, and 6 weeks postoperatively in 96% of FSCs and 78% of referring FMUs. However, for T2W spine image acquisition referring FMUs were less able to provide three orthogonal planes presurgery (98% FSC vs. 50% FMU, p < 0.001), and 6 weeks post-surgery (100% FSC vs. 48% FMU, p < 0.001). Other standard imaging recommendations such as T1-weighted (T1W), gradient echo (GE) or echoplanar fetal brain and spine imaging in one or two orthogonal planes were more likely available in FSCs compared to FMUs pre- and post-surgery (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: There was timely access to supervised MRI for OSB fetal surgery assessment. However, the provision of images of the fetal brain and spine in sufficient orthogonal planes, which are required for determining eligibility and to determine the reversal of hindbrain herniation after fetal surgery, were less frequently acquired. Our evidence suggests the need for specific guidance in relation to fetal MRI for OSB. We propose an example guidance for MRI acquisition and reporting.

Use of super resolution reconstruction MRI for surgical planning in Placenta accreta spectrum disorder: Case series.

INTRODUCTION: Comprehensive imaging using ultrasound and MRI of placenta accreta spectrum (PAS) aims to prevent catastrophic haemorrhage and maternal death. Standard MRI of the placenta is limited by between-slice motion which can be mitigated by super-resolution reconstruction (SRR) MRI. We applied SRR in suspected PAS cases to determine its ability to enhance anatomical placental assessment and predict adverse maternal outcome. METHODS: Suspected PAS patients (n = 22) underwent MRI at a gestational age (weeks + days) of (32+3±3+2, range (27+1-38+6)). SRR of the placental-myometrial-bladder interface involving rigid motion correction of acquired MRI slices combined with robust outlier detection to reconstruct an isotropic high-resolution volume, was achieved in twelve. 2D MRI or SRR images alone, and paired data were assessed by four radiologists in three review rounds. All radiologists were blinded to results of the ultrasound, original MR image reports, case outcomes, and PAS diagnosis. A Random Forest Classification model was used to highlight the most predictive pathological MRI markers for major obstetric haemorrhage (MOH), bladder adherence (BA), and placental attachment depth (PAD). RESULTS: At delivery, four patients had placenta praevia with no abnormal attachment, two were clinically diagnosed with PAS, and six had histopathological PAS confirmation. Pathological MRI markers (T2-dark intraplacental bands, and loss of retroplacental T2-hypointense line) predicting MOH were more visible using SRR imaging (accuracy 0.73), in comparison to 2D MRI or paired imaging. Bladder wall interruption, predicting BA, was only easily detected by paired imaging (accuracy 0.72). Better detection of certain pathological markers predicting PAD was found using 2D MRI (placental bulge and myometrial thinning (accuracy 0.81)), and SRR (loss of retroplacental T2-hypointense line (accuracy 0.82)). DISCUSSION: The addition of SRR to 2D MRI potentially improved anatomical assessment of certain pathological MRI markers of abnormal placentation that predict maternal morbidity which may benefit surgical planning.

Developments in functional imaging of the placenta.

The placenta is both the literal and metaphorical black box of pregnancy. Measurement of the function of the placenta has the potential to enhance our understanding of this enigmatic organ and serve to support obstetric decision making. Advanced imaging techniques are key to support these measurements. This review summarises emerging imaging technology being used to measure the function of the placenta and new developments in the computational analysis of these data. We address three important examples where functional imaging is supporting our understanding of these conditions: fetal growth restriction, placenta accreta, and twin-twin transfusion syndrome.

Placental MRI Predicts Fetal Oxygenation and Growth Rates in Sheep and Human Pregnancy.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) assessment of fetal blood oxygen saturation (SO2 ) can transform the clinical management of high-risk pregnancies affected by fetal growth restriction (FGR). Here, a novel MRI method assesses the feasibility of identifying normally grown and FGR fetuses in sheep and is then applied to humans. MRI scans are performed in pregnant ewes at 110 and 140 days (term = 150d) gestation and in pregnant women at 28+3  ± 2+5 weeks to measure feto-placental SO2 . Birth weight is collected and, in sheep, fetal blood SO2 is measured with a blood gas analyzer (BGA). Fetal arterial SO2 measured by BGA predicts fetal birth weight in sheep and distinguishes between fetuses that are normally grown, small for gestational age, and FGR. MRI feto-placental SO2 in late gestation is related to fetal blood SO2 measured by BGA and body weight. In sheep, MRI feto-placental SO2 in mid-gestation is related to fetal SO2 later in gestation. MRI feto-placental SO2 distinguishes between normally grown and FGR fetuses, as well as distinguishing FGR fetuses with and without normal Doppler in humans. Thus, a multi-compartment placental MRI model detects low placental SO2 and distinguishes between small hypoxemic fetuses and normally grown fetuses.

What brain abnormalities can magnetic resonance imaging detect in foetal and early neonatal spina bifida: a systematic review.

PURPOSE: Open spina bifida (OSB) encompasses a wide spectrum of intracranial abnormalities. With foetal surgery as a new treatment option, robust intracranial imaging is important for comprehensive preoperative evaluation and prognostication. We aimed to determine the incidence of infratentorial and supratentorial findings detected by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) alone and MRI compared to ultrasound. METHODS: Two systematic reviews comparing MRI to ultrasound and MRI alone were conducted on MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Cochrane databases identifying studies of foetal OSB from 2000 to 2020. Intracranial imaging findings were analysed at ≤ 26 or > 26 weeks gestation and neonates (≤ 28 days). Data was independently extracted by two reviewers and meta-analysis was performed where possible. RESULTS: Thirty-six studies reported brain abnormalities detected by MRI alone in patients who previously had an ultrasound. Callosal dysgenesis was identified in 4/29 cases (2 foetuses ≤ 26 weeks, 1 foetus under any gestation, and 1 neonate ≤ 28 days) (15.1%, CI:5.7-34.3%). Heterotopia was identified in 7/40 foetuses ≤ 26 weeks (19.8%, CI:7.7-42.2%), 9/36 foetuses > 26 weeks (25.3%, CI:13.7-41.9%), and 64/250 neonates ≤ 28 days (26.9%, CI:15.3-42.8%). Additional abnormalities included aberrant cortical folding and other Chiari II malformation findings such as lower cervicomedullary kink level, tectal beaking, and hypoplastic tentorium. Eight studies compared MRI directly to ultrasound, but due to reporting inconsistencies, it was not possible to meta-analyse. CONCLUSION: MRI is able to detect anomalies hitherto underestimated in foetal OSB which may be important for case selection. In view of increasing prenatal OSB surgery, further studies are required to assess developmental consequences of these findings.

Super-resolution Reconstruction MRI Application in Fetal Neck Masses and Congenital High Airway Obstruction Syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: Reliable airway patency diagnosis in fetal tracheolaryngeal obstruction is crucial to select and plan ex utero intrapartum treatment (EXIT) surgery. We compared the clinical utility of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) super-resolution reconstruction (SRR) of the trachea, which can mitigate unpredictable fetal motion effects, with standard 2-dimensional (2D) MRI for airway patency diagnosis and assessment of fetal neck mass anatomy. STUDY DESIGN: A single-center case series of 7 consecutive singleton pregnancies with complex upper airway obstruction (2013-2019). SETTING: A tertiary fetal medicine unit performing EXIT surgery. METHODS: MRI SRR of the trachea was performed involving rigid motion correction of acquired 2D MRI slices combined with robust outlier detection to reconstruct an isotropic high-resolution volume. SRR, 2D MRI, and paired data were blindly assessed by 3 radiologists in 3 experimental rounds. RESULTS: Airway patency was correctly diagnosed in 4 of 7 cases (57%) with 2D MRI as compared with 2 of 7 cases (29%) with SRR alone or paired 2D MRI and SRR. Radiologists were more confident (P = .026) in airway patency diagnosis when using 2D MRI than SRR. Anatomic clarity was higher with SRR (P = .027) or paired data (P = .041) in comparison with 2D MRI alone. Radiologists detected further anatomic details by using paired images versus 2D MRI alone (P < .001). Cognitive load, as assessed by the NASA Task Load Index, was increased with paired or SRR data in comparison with 2D MRI. CONCLUSION: The addition of SRR to 2D MRI does not increase fetal airway patency diagnostic accuracy but does provide improved anatomic information, which may benefit surgical planning of EXIT procedures.

Cortical spectral matching and shape and volume analysis of the fetal brain pre- and post-fetal surgery for spina bifida: a retrospective study.

PURPOSE: A retrospective study was performed to study the effect of fetal surgery on brain development measured by MRI in fetuses with myelomeningocele (MMC). METHODS: MRI scans of 12 MMC fetuses before and after surgery were compared to 24 age-matched controls without central nervous system abnormalities. An automated super-resolution reconstruction technique generated isotropic brain volumes to mitigate 2D MRI fetal motion artefact. Unmyelinated white matter, cerebellum and ventricles were automatically segmented, and cerebral volume, shape and cortical folding were thereafter quantified. Biometric measures were calculated for cerebellar herniation level (CHL), clivus-supraocciput angle (CSO), transverse cerebellar diameter (TCD) and ventricular width (VW). Shape index (SI), a mathematical marker of gyrification, was derived. We compared cerebral volume, surface area and SI before and after MMC fetal surgery versus controls. We additionally identified any relationship between these outcomes and biometric measurements. RESULTS: MMC ventricular volume/week (mm3/week) increased after fetal surgery (median: 3699, interquartile range (IQR): 1651-5395) compared to controls (median: 648, IQR: 371-896); P = 0.015. The MMC SI is higher pre-operatively in all cerebral lobes in comparison to that in controls. Change in SI/week in MMC fetuses was higher in the left temporal lobe (median: 0.039, IQR: 0.021-0.054), left parietal lobe (median: 0.032, IQR: 0.023-0.039) and right occipital lobe (median: 0.027, IQR: 0.019-0.040) versus controls (P = 0.002 to 0.005). Ventricular volume (mm3) and VW (mm) (r = 0.64), cerebellar volume and TCD (r = 0.56) were moderately correlated. CONCLUSIONS: Following fetal myelomeningocele repair, brain volume, shape and SI were significantly different from normal in most cerebral layers. Morphological brain changes after fetal surgery are not limited to hindbrain herniation reversal. These findings may have neurocognitive outcome implications and require further evaluation.

A spatio-temporal atlas of the developing fetal brain with spina bifida aperta.

Background: Spina bifida aperta (SBA) is a birth defect associated with severe anatomical changes in the developing fetal brain. Brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) atlases are popular tools for studying neuropathology in the brain anatomy, but previous fetal brain MRI atlases have focused on the normal fetal brain. We aimed to develop a spatio-temporal fetal brain MRI atlas for SBA. Methods: We developed a semi-automatic computational method to compute the first spatio-temporal fetal brain MRI atlas for SBA. We used 90 MRIs of fetuses with SBA with gestational ages ranging from 21 to 35 weeks. Isotropic and motion-free 3D reconstructed MRIs were obtained for all the examinations. We propose a protocol for the annotation of anatomical landmarks in brain 3D MRI of fetuses with SBA with the aim of making spatial alignment of abnormal fetal brain MRIs more robust. In addition, we propose a weighted generalized Procrustes method based on the anatomical landmarks for the initialization of the atlas. The proposed weighted generalized Procrustes can handle temporal regularization and missing annotations. After initialization, the atlas is refined iteratively using non-linear image registration based on the image intensity and the anatomical land-marks. A semi-automatic method is used to obtain a parcellation of our fetal brain atlas into eight tissue types: white matter, ventricular system, cerebellum, extra-axial cerebrospinal fluid, cortical gray matter, deep gray matter, brainstem, and corpus callosum. Results: An intra-rater variability analysis suggests that the seven anatomical land-marks are sufficiently reliable. We find that the proposed atlas outperforms a normal fetal brain atlas for the automatic segmentation of brain 3D MRI of fetuses with SBA. Conclusions: We make publicly available a spatio-temporal fetal brain MRI atlas for SBA, available here:  https://doi.org/10.7303/syn25887675. This atlas can support future research on automatic segmentation methods for brain 3D MRI of fetuses with SBA.

Improved fetal blood oxygenation and placental estimated measurements of diffusion-weighted MRI using data-driven Bayesian modeling.

PURPOSE: Motion correction in placental DW-MRI is challenging due to maternal breathing motion, maternal movements, and rapid intensity changes. Parameter estimates are usually obtained using least-squares methods for voxel-wise fitting; however, they typically give noisy estimates due to low signal-to-noise ratio. We introduce a model-driven registration (MDR) technique which incorporates a placenta-specific signal model into the registration process, and we present a Bayesian approach for Diffusion-rElaxation Combined Imaging for Detailed placental Evaluation model to obtain individual and population trends in estimated parameters. METHODS: MDR exploits the fact that a placenta signal model is available and thus we incorporate it into the registration to generate a series of target images. The proposed registration method is compared to a pre-existing method used for DCE-MRI data making use of principal components analysis. The Bayesian shrinkage prior (BSP) method has no user-defined parameters and therefore measures of parameter variation in a region of interest are determined by the data alone. The MDR method and the Bayesian approach were evaluated on 10 control 4D DW-MRI singleton placental data. RESULTS: MDR method improves the alignment of placenta data compared to the pre-existing method. It also shows a further reduction of the residual error between the data and the fit. BSP approach showed higher precision leading to more clearly apparent spatial features in the parameter maps. Placental fetal oxygen saturation (FO2 ) showed a negative linear correlation with gestational age. CONCLUSIONS: The proposed pipeline provides a robust framework for registering DW-MRI data and analyzing longitudinal changes of placental function.