Diversity of heart failure phenotypes in transthyretin amyloid cardiomyopathy. More than just heart failure with preserved ejection fraction.

INTRODUCTION: Current guidelines recommend suspecting transthyretin amyloid cardiomyopathy (ATTR-CM) in patients over 65 years of age with unexplained left ventricular (LV) hypertrophy in a non-dilated LV, heart failure (HF) and preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), hypertrophic cardiomyopathy or severe aortic stenosis. However, there is evidence indicating a high prevalence of ATTR-CM in other HF phenotypes. As such, this study aimed to characterize the diversity of HF phenotypes of ATTR-CM by examining the LV ejection fraction and LV dilatation using echocardiography. METHODS: This multicentre, retrospective observational study included patients diagnosed with ATTR-CM between 2015-2023. The diagnosis was based on a positive cardiac biopsy or positive bone scintigraphy without monoclonal gammopathy. Echocardiographic measurements were categorized according to LV ejection fraction (LVEF) into HFpEF (LVEF ≥50%), HF with mildly reduced EF (HFmrEF, LVEF 40-49%), and HF with reduced EF (HFrEF, LVEF <40%). LV cavity size was categorized by LV end-diastolic diameter (LVEDD) and volume index (LVEDVi) as normal, moderately increased and severe dilatation. RESULTS: The study included 135 patients with ATTR-CM (mean age, 78 years; 89% male; 89% wild-type ATTR-CM). Most patients were screened for ATTR-CM because of unexplained HF and increased LV wall thickness (57%). Echocardiography showed LVEF <50% in 60% of the patients, with a significant portion presenting with HFrEF. Patients with LVEF <50% had higher NYHA class and elevated N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide levels than HFpEF patients. LV dilatation was observed in 43% of the patients, with 10% presenting with both LVEF <50% and severe LV dilatation. CONCLUSION: This study revealed significant variability in HF phenotypes among patients with ATTR-CM, from HFpEF without LV dilatation to HFrEF with severe LV dilatation. Relying solely on HFpEF for screening may lead to under-diagnosis. These findings suggest the need for more comprehensive diagnostic criteria beyond echocardiographic measures to improve ATTR-CM detection and management.

Natural History, Phenotype Spectrum and Clinical Outcomes of Desmin (DES)-Associated Cardiomyopathy.

Background: Pathogenic/likely pathogenic (P/LP) desmin (DES) variants cause heterogeneous cardiomyopathy and/or skeletal myopathy phenotypes. Limited data suggest a high incidence of major adverse cardiac events (MACE), including cardiac conduction disease (CCD), sustained ventricular arrhythmias (VA), and heart failure (HF) events (HF hospitalization, LVAD/cardiac transplant, HF-related death), in patients with P/LP DES variants. However, pleiotropic presentation and small cohort sizes have limited clinical phenotype and outcome characterization. Objectives: We aimed to describe the natural history, phenotype spectrum, familial penetrance and outcomes in patients with P/LP DES variants through a systematic review and individual patient data meta-analysis using published reports. Methods: We searched Medline (PubMed) and Embase for studies that evaluated cardiac phenotypes in patients with P/LP DES variants. Cardiomyopathy diagnosis or occurrence of MACE were considered evidence of cardiac involvement/penetrance. Lifetime event-free survival from CCD, sustained VA, HF events, and composite MACE was assessed. Results: Out of 4,212 screened publications, 71 met the inclusion criteria. A total of 230 patients were included (52.6% male, 52.2% probands, median age: 31 years [22.0; 42.8] at first evaluation, median follow-up: 3 years [0; 11.0]). Overall, 124 (53.9%) patients were diagnosed with cardiomyopathy, predominantly dilated cardiomyopathy (14.8%), followed by restrictive cardiomyopathy (13.5%), whereas other forms were less common: arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (7.0%), hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (6.1%), arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (5.2%), and other forms (7.4%). Overall, 132 (57.4%) patients developed MACE, with 96 [41.7%] having CCD, 36 [15.7%] sustained VA, and 43 [18.7%] HF events. Familial penetrance of cardiac disease was 63.6% among relatives with P/LP DES variants. Male sex was associated with increased risk of sustained VA (HR 2.28, p=0.02) and HF events (HR 2.45, p=0.008). Conclusions: DES cardiomyopathy exhibits heterogeneous phenotypes and distinct natural history, characterized by high familial penetrance and substantial MACE burden. Male patients face higher risk of sustained VA events.

Insights into early animal evolution from the genome of the xenacoelomorph worm Xenoturbella bocki.

The evolutionary origins of Bilateria remain enigmatic. One of the more enduring proposals highlights similarities between a cnidarian-like planula larva and simple acoel-like flatworms. This idea is based in part on the view of the Xenacoelomorpha as an outgroup to all other bilaterians which are themselves designated the Nephrozoa (protostomes and deuterostomes). Genome data can provide important comparative data and help understand the evolution and biology of enigmatic species better. Here, we assemble and analyze the genome of the simple, marine xenacoelomorph Xenoturbella bocki, a key species for our understanding of early bilaterian evolution. Our highly contiguous genome assembly of X. bocki has a size of ~111 Mbp in 18 chromosome-like scaffolds, with repeat content and intron, exon, and intergenic space comparable to other bilaterian invertebrates. We find X. bocki to have a similar number of genes to other bilaterians and to have retained ancestral metazoan synteny. Key bilaterian signaling pathways are also largely complete and most bilaterian miRNAs are present. Overall, we conclude that X. bocki has a complex genome typical of bilaterians, which does not reflect the apparent simplicity of its body plan that has been so important to proposals that the Xenacoelomorpha are the simple sister group of the rest of the Bilateria.

Xenoturbella bocki is a small marine worm predominantly found on the seafloor of fjords along the west coast of Sweden. This simple organism's unusual evolutionary history has long intrigued zoologists as it is not clear how it is related to other animal groups. The worm may belong to one of the earliest branches of the animal kingdom, which would explain its simple body. On the other hand, it could be related to a more complex group, the deuterostomes, which includes a wide range of animals, from mammals and birds to sea urchins and starfish. Understanding X. bocki's evolution could provide valuable insights into how bilaterians evolved as a whole. Unlike its close relatives, the acoelomorphs, X. bocki evolves more slowly, which makes it simpler to study its genome. As a result, it serves as a starting point for investigating the evolutionary processes and genetics underpinning the broader group of bilaterians. To better understand the evolution of X. bocki's simple body, Schiffer et al. asked whether its genome is simpler or differs in other ways from that of more complex bilaterian organisms. Sequencing the entire X. bocki genome revealed that it has a similar number of genes to that of other animals and includes the genes required for complex biochemical pathways. Reconstructing the worm's chromosomes ­ the structures that house genetic information ­ showed that the X. bocki genes are also distributed in a manner similar to those in other animals. The findings suggest that, despite its simple body plan, X. bocki has a complex genome that is typical of bilaterians. This challenges the idea that X. bocki belongs to a more primitive, simplified sister group to Bilateria and provides a starting point for further studies of how this simple worm evolved.

Improved diagnosis of arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy using electrocardiographic deep learning.

BACKGROUND: Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC) is a rare genetic heart disease associated with life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias. Diagnosis of ARVC is based on the 2010 Task Force Criteria (TFC), application of which often requires clinical expertise at specialized centers. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to develop and validate an electrocardiogram (ECG) deep learning (DL) tool for ARVC diagnosis. METHODS: ECGs of patients referred for ARVC evaluation were used to develop (n = 551 [80.1%]) and test (n = 137 [19.9%]) an ECG-DL model for prediction of TFC-defined ARVC diagnosis. The ARVC ECG-DL model was externally validated in a cohort of patients with pathogenic or likely pathogenic (P/LP) ARVC gene variants identified through the Geisinger MyCode Community Health Initiative (N = 167). RESULTS: Of 688 patients evaluated at Johns Hopkins Hospital (JHH) (57.3% male, mean age 40.2 years), 329 (47.8%) were diagnosed with ARVC. Although ARVC diagnosis made by referring cardiologist ECG interpretation was unreliable (c-statistic 0.53; confidence interval [CI] 0.52-0.53), ECG-DL discrimination in the hold-out testing cohort was excellent (0.87; 0.86-0.89) and compared favorably to that of ECG interpretation by an ARVC expert (0.85; 0.84-0.86). In the Geisinger cohort, prevalence of ARVC was lower (n = 17 [10.2%]), but ECG-DL-based identification of ARVC phenotype remained reliable (0.80; 0.77-0.83). Discrimination was further increased when ECG-DL predictions were combined with non-ECG-derived TFC in the JHH testing (c-statistic 0.940; 95% CI 0.933-0.948) and Geisinger validation (0.897; 95% CI 0.883-0.912) cohorts. CONCLUSION: ECG-DL augments diagnosis of ARVC to the level of an ARVC expert and can differentiate true ARVC diagnosis from phenotype-mimics and at-risk family members/genotype-positive individuals.

Diagnostic value of late gadolinium enhancement at cardiovascular magnetic resonance to distinguish arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy from differentials.

BACKGROUND: While late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) is proposed as a diagnostic criterion for arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC), the potential of LGE to distinguish ARVC from differentials remains unknown. We aimed to assess the diagnostic value of LGE for ARVC diagnosis. METHODS: We included 132 subjects (60% male, 47 ± 11 years) who had undergone cardiac magnetic resonance imaging with LGE assessment for ARVC or ARVC differentials. ARVC was diagnosed as per 2010 Task Force Criteria (n = 55). ARVC differentials consisted of familial/genetic dilated cardiomyopathy (n = 25), myocarditis (n = 13), sarcoidosis (n = 20), and amyloidosis (n = 19). The diagnosis of all differentials was based on the most current standard of reference. The presence of LGE was evaluated using a 7-segment right ventricle (RV) and 17-segment left ventricle (LV) model. Subsequently, we assessed LGE patterns for every patient individually for fulfilling LV- and/or RV-LGE per Padua criteria, independent of their clinical diagnosis (i.e. phenotype). Diagnostic values were analyzed using sensitivity and specificity for any RV-LGE, any LV-LGE, RV-LGE per Padua criteria, and prevalence graphs for LV-LGE per Padua criteria. The optimal integration of LGE for ARVC diagnosis was determined using classification and regression tree analysis. RESULTS: One-third (38%) of ARVC patients had RV-LGE, while half (51%) had LV-LGE. RV-LGE was less frequently observed in ARVC vs non-ARVC patients (38% vs 58%, p = 0.034) leading to a poor discriminatory potential (any RV-LGE: sensitivity 38%, specificity 42%; RV-LGE per Padua criteria: sensitivity 36%, specificity 44%). Compared to ARVC patients, non-ARVC patients more often had LV-LGE (91% vs 51%, p < 0.001) which was also more globally distributed (median 9 [interquartile range (IQR): 3-13] vs 0 [IQR: 0-3] segments, p < 0.001). The absence of anteroseptal and absence of extensive (≥5 segments) mid-myocardial LV-LGE, and absence of moderate (≥2 segments) mid-myocardial LV-LGE predicted ARVC with good diagnostic performance (sensitivity 93%, specificity 78%). CONCLUSION: LGE is often present in ARVC differentials and may lead to false positive diagnoses when used without knowledge of LGE patterns. Moderate RV-LGE without anteroseptal and mid-myocardial LV-LGE is typically observed in ARVC.

Evaluation of the 2021 ESC recommendations for family screening in hereditary transthyretin cardiac amyloidosis.

AIMS: The 2021 European Society of Cardiology (ESC) screening recommendations for individuals carrying a pathogenic transthyretin amyloidosis variant (ATTRv) are based on expert opinion. We aimed to (i) determine the penetrance of ATTRv cardiomyopathy (ATTRv-CM) at baseline; (ii) examine the value of serial evaluation; and (iii) establish the yield of first-line diagnostic tests (i.e. electrocardiogram, echocardiogram, and laboratory tests) as per 2021 ESC position statement. METHODS AND RESULTS: We included 159 relatives (median age 55.6 [43.2-65.9] years, 52% male) at risk for ATTRv-CM from 10 centres. The primary endpoint, ATTRv-CM diagnosis, was defined as the presence of (i) cardiac tracer uptake in bone scintigraphy; or (ii) transthyretin-positive cardiac biopsy. The secondary endpoint was a composite of heart failure (New York Heart Association class ≥II) and pacemaker-requiring conduction disorders. At baseline, 40/159 (25%) relatives were diagnosed with ATTRv-CM. Of those, 20 (50%) met the secondary endpoint. Indication to screen (≤10 years prior to predicted disease onset and absence of extracardiac amyloidosis) had an excellent negative predictive value (97%). Other pre-screening predictors for ATTRv-CM were infrequently identified variants and male sex. Importantly, 13% of relatives with ATTRv-CM did not show any signs of cardiac involvement on first-line diagnostic tests. The yield of serial evaluation (n = 41 relatives; follow-up 3.1 [2.2-5.2] years) at 3-year interval was 9.4%. CONCLUSIONS: Screening according to the 2021 ESC position statement performs well in daily clinical practice. Clinicians should adhere to repeating bone scintigraphy after 3 years, as progressing to ATTRv-CM without signs of ATTRv-CM on first-line diagnostic tests or symptoms is common.

Combined approaches, including long-read sequencing, address the diagnostic challenge of HYDIN in primary ciliary dyskinesia.

Primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD), a disorder of the motile cilia, is now recognised as an underdiagnosed cause of bronchiectasis. Accurate PCD diagnosis comprises clinical assessment, analysis of cilia and the identification of biallelic variants in one of 50 known PCD-related genes, including HYDIN. HYDIN-related PCD is underdiagnosed due to the presence of a pseudogene, HYDIN2, with 98% sequence homology to HYDIN. This presents a significant challenge for Short-Read Next Generation Sequencing (SR-NGS) and analysis, and many diagnostic PCD gene panels do not include HYDIN. We have used a combined approach of SR-NGS with bioinformatic masking of HYDIN2, and state-of-the-art long-read Nanopore sequencing (LR_NGS), together with analysis of respiratory cilia including transmission electron microscopy and immunofluorescence to address the underdiagnosis of HYDIN as a cause of PCD. Bioinformatic masking of HYDIN2 after SR-NGS facilitated the detection of biallelic HYDIN variants in 15 of 437 families, but compromised the detection of copy number variants. Supplementing testing with LR-NGS detected HYDIN deletions in 2 families, where SR-NGS had detected a single heterozygous HYDIN variant. LR-NGS was also able to confirm true homozygosity in 2 families when parental testing was not possible. Utilising a combined genomic diagnostic approach, biallelic HYDIN variants were detected in 17 families from 242 genetically confirmed PCD cases, comprising 7% of our PCD cohort. This represents the largest reported HYDIN cohort to date and highlights previous underdiagnosis of HYDIN-associated PCD. Moreover this provides further evidence for the utility of LR-NGS in diagnostic testing, particularly for regions of high genomic complexity.

Catheter Ablation for Ventricular Tachycardia in Patients With Desmoplakin Cardiomyopathy.

BACKGROUND: Desmoplakin (DSP) pathogenic/likely pathogenic (P/LP) variants are associated with malignant phenotypes of arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (DSP-ACM). Reports of outcomes after ventricular tachycardia (VT) ablation in DSP-ACM are scarce. OBJECTIVES: In this study, the authors sought to report on long-term outcomes of VT ablation in DSP-ACM. METHODS: Patients with P/LP DSP variants at 9 institutions undergoing VT ablation were included. Demographic, clinical, and instrumental data as well as all ventricular arrhythmia (VA) events were collected. Sustained VAs after the index procedure were the primary outcome. A per-patient before and after ablation comparison of rates of VA episodes per year was performed as well. RESULTS: Twenty-four DSP-ACM patients (39.3 ± 12.1 years of age, 62.5% male, median 6,116 [Q1-Q3: 3,362-7,760] premature ventricular complexes [PVCs] per 24 hours, median 4 [Q1-Q3: 2-11] previous VA episodes per patient at ablation) were included. Index procedure was most commonly endocardial/epicardial (19/24) The endocardium of the right ventricle (RV), the left ventricle (LV), or both ventricles were mapped in 8 (33.3%), 9 (37.5%), and 7 (29.2%) cases, respectively. Low voltage potentials were found in 10 of 15 patients in the RV and 11 of 16 in the LV. Endocardial ablation was performed in 18 patients (75.0%). Epicardial mapping in 19 patients (79.2%) identified low voltage potentials in 17, and 16 received epicardial ablation. Over the following 2.9 years (Q1-Q3: 1.8-5.5 years), 13 patients (54.2%) experienced VA recurrences. A significant reduction in per-patient event/year before and after ablation was observed (1.4 [Q1-Q3: 0.5-2.4] to 0.1 [Q1-Q3: 0.0-0.4]; P = 0.009). Two patients needed heart transplantation, and 4 died (3 of heart failure and 1 noncardiac death). CONCLUSIONS: VT ablation in DSP-ACM is effective in reducing the VA burden of the disease, but recurrences are common. Most VT circuits are epicardial, with both LV and RV low voltage abnormalities. Heart failure complicates clinical course and is an important cause of mortality.

The added value of abnormal regional myocardial function for risk prediction in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy.

AIMS: A risk calculator for individualized prediction of first-time sustained ventricular arrhythmia (VA) in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC) patients has recently been developed and validated (www.ARVCrisk.com). This study aimed to investigate whether regional functional abnormalities, measured by echocardiographic deformation imaging, can provide additional prognostic value. METHODS AND RESULTS: From two referral centres, 150 consecutive patients with a definite ARVC diagnosis, no prior sustained VA, and an echocardiogram suitable for deformation analysis were included (aged 41 ± 17 years, 50% female). During a median follow-up of 6.3 (interquartile range 3.1-9.8) years, 37 (25%) experienced a first-time sustained VA. All tested left and right ventricular (LV and RV) deformation parameters were univariate predictors for first-time VA. While LV function did not add predictive value in multivariate analysis, two RV deformation parameters did; RV free wall longitudinal strain and regional RV deformation patterns remained independent predictors after adjusting for the calculator-predicted risk [hazard ratio 1.07 (95% CI 1.02-1.11); P = 0.004 and 4.45 (95% CI 1.07-18.57); P = 0.040, respectively] and improved its discriminative value (from C-statistic 0.78 to 0.82 in both; Akaike information criterion change > 2). Importantly, all patients who experienced VA within 5 years from the echocardiographic assessment had abnormal regional RV deformation patterns at baseline. CONCLUSIONS: This study showed that regional functional abnormalities measured by echocardiographic deformation imaging can further refine personalized arrhythmic risk prediction when added to the ARVC risk calculator. The excellent negative predictive value of normal RV deformation could support clinicians considering the timing of implantable cardioverter defibrillator implantation in patients with intermediate arrhythmic risk.

Individualized Family Screening for Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy.

BACKGROUND: Clinical guidelines recommend regular screening for arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC) to monitor at-risk relatives, resulting in a significant burden on clinical resources. Prioritizing relatives on their probability of developing definite ARVC may provide more efficient patient care. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to determine the predictors and probability of ARVC development over time among at-risk relatives. METHODS: A total of 136 relatives (46% men, median age 25.5 years [IQR: 15.8-44.4 years]) from the Netherlands Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathy Registry without definite ARVC by 2010 task force criteria were included. Phenotype was ascertained using electrocardiography, Holter monitoring, and cardiac imaging. Subjects were divided into groups with "possible ARVC" (only genetic or familial predisposition) and "borderline ARVC" (1 minor task force criterion plus genetic or familial predisposition). Cox regression was performed to determine predictors and multistate modeling to assess the probability of ARVC development. Results were replicated in an unrelated Italian cohort (57% men, median age 37.0 years [IQR: 25.4-50.4 years]). RESULTS: At baseline, 93 subjects (68%) had possible ARVC, and 43 (32%) had borderline ARVC. Follow-up was available for 123 relatives (90%). After 8.1 years (IQR: 4.2-11.4 years), 41 (33%) had developed definite ARVC. Independent of baseline phenotype, symptomatic subjects (P = 0.014) and those 20 to 30 years of age (P = 0.002) had a higher hazard of developing definite ARVC. Furthermore, patients with borderline ARVC had a higher probability of developing definite ARVC compared with those with possible ARVC (1-year probability 13% vs 0.6%, 3-year probability 35% vs 5%; P < 0.01). External replication showed comparable results (P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Symptomatic relatives, those 20 to 30 years of age, and those with borderline ARVC have a higher probability of developing definite ARVC. These patients may benefit from more frequent follow-up, while others may be monitored less often.

Circulating Biomarkers of Fibrosis Formation in Patients with Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathy.

Arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (ACM) is a progressive inheritable disease which is characterized by a gradual fibro-(fatty) replacement of the myocardium. Visualization of diffuse and patchy fibrosis patterns is challenging using clinically applied cardiac imaging modalities (e.g., late gadolinium enhancement, LGE). During collagen synthesis and breakdown, carboxy-peptides are released into the bloodstream, specifically procollagen type-I carboxy-terminal propeptides (PICP) and collagen type-I carboxy-terminal telopeptides (ICTP). We collected the serum and EDTA blood samples and clinical data of 45 ACM patients (age 50.11 ± 15.53 years, 44% female), divided into 35 diagnosed ACM patients with a 2010 ARVC Task Force Criteria score (TFC) ≥ 4, and 10 preclinical variant carriers with a TFC < 4. PICP levels were measured using an enzyme-linked immune sorbent assay and ICTP levels with a radio immunoassay. Increased PICP/ICTP ratios suggest a higher collagen deposition. We found significantly higher PICP and PICP/ICTP levels in diagnosed patients compared to preclinical variant carriers (p < 0.036 and p < 0.027). A moderate negative correlation existed between right ventricular ejection fractions (RVEF) and the PICP/ICTP ratio (r = -0.46, p = 0.06). In addition, significant correlations with left ventricular function (LVEF r = -0.53, p = 0.03 and end-systolic volume r = 0.63, p = 0.02) were found. These findings indicate impaired contractile performance due to pro-fibrotic remodeling. Follow-up studies including a larger number of patients should be performed to substantiate our findings and the validity of those levels as potential promising biomarkers in ACM.

Longitudinal Prediction of Ventricular Arrhythmic Risk in Patients With Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy.

BACKGROUND: The arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC) risk calculator stratifies risk for incident sustained ventricular arrhythmias (VA) at the time of ARVC diagnosis. However, included risk factors change over time, and how well the ARVC risk calculator performs at follow-up is unknown. METHODS: This was a retrospective analysis of patients with definite ARVC and without prior sustained VA. Risk factors for VA including age, nonsustained ventricular tachycardia, premature ventricular complex burden, T-wave inversions on electrocardiogram, cardiac syncope, right ventricular function, therapeutic medication use, and exercise intensity were assessed at the time of 2010 Task Force Criteria based ARVC diagnosis and upon repeat evaluations. Changes in these risk factors were analyzed over 5-year follow-up. The 5-year risk of VA was predicted longitudinally using (1) the baseline ARVC risk calculator prediction, (2) the ARVC risk prediction calculated using updated risk factors, and (3) time-varying Cox regression. Discrimination and calibration were assessed in comparison to observed VA event rates. RESULTS: Four hundred eight patients with ARVC experiencing 132 primary VA events were included. Matched comparison of risk factors at baseline versus at 5 years of follow-up revealed decreased burdens of premature ventricular complexes (-1200/day) and nonsustained ventricular tachycardia (-14%). Presence of significant right ventricular dysfunction and number of T-wave inversions on electrocardiogram were unchanged. Observed risk for VA decreased by 13% by 5 years follow-up. The baseline ARVC risk calculator's ability to predict 5-year VA risk worsened during follow-up (C statistics, 0.83 at diagnosis versus 0.68 at 5 years). Both the updated ARVC risk calculator (C statistics of 0.77) and time-varying Cox regression model (C statistics, 0.77) had strong discrimination. The updated ARVC risk calculator overestimated 5-year VA risk by an average of +6%. CONCLUSIONS: Risk factors for VA in ARVC are dynamic, and overall risk for incident sustained VA decreases during follow-up. Up-to-date risk factor assessment improves VA risk stratification.