Pharmaceutical and pharmacokinetic evaluation of a newly formulated multiparticulate matrix of levodopa and carbidopa.

Levodopa is routinely co-administered with carbidopa in the management of Parkinson's disease. Although the aforementioned combination therapy is effective, there may be fluctuating plasma levels of levodopa after oral administration. We formulated and evaluated the kinetic characteristics of the chitosan-pectin-based multiparticulate matrix of levodopa and carbidopa. Pectin was extracted from the cocoa husk, and the chitosan-pectin-based matrix was prepared by wet granulation. Formulations were evaluated for drug-excipient compatibility, drug content, precompression properties and in vitro release. For pharmacokinetic evaluation, rats were put into groups and administered either chitosan-pectin based matrix of levodopa/carbidopa, Sinemet® CR or levodopa/carbidopa immediate release powder. Rats were administered the different formulations of levodopa/carbidopa (20/5 mg/kg) per os every 12 hours. The pharmacokinetic parameters of levodopa were estimated for the various treatment groups. The percentage content of levodopa and carbidopa in the various formulations was within the acceptance criteria. The AUC0-24 for levodopa/carbidopa multiparticulate matrix (Formulation 3: 484.98 ± 18.70 µg.hr/mL); Formulation 4: 535.60 ± 33.04 µg.hr/mL), and Cmax (Formulation 3: 36.28 ± 1.52 µg/mL; Formulation 4: 34.80 ± 2.19 µg/mL) were higher than Sinemet® CR (AUC0-24 262.84 ± 16.73 µg.hr/mL and Cmax 30.62 ± 3.37 µg/mL). The t 1/2 of the new formulation was longer compared to Sinemet® CR.

Association Between Selected Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms in Globin and Related Genes and Response to Hydroxyurea Therapy in Ghanaian Children with Sickle Cell Disease.

Background: Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a group of genetic disorders affecting the structure and function of haemoglobin. Hydroxyurea (HU) stimulates fetal haemoglobin (HbF) and reduces sickle erythrocyte-endothelial cell interaction. However, the degree of HbF response to HU varies, with HbF expression-associated single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in quantitative trait loci (QTL) been implicated. We investigated the relationship between four SNPs (rs11886868, rs6706648, rs7606173 and 158C/T Xmn1) in two QTL (B-cell lymphoma 11A (BCL11A) and Xmn1) and HbF levels in children with SCD in Accra, Ghana. Methods: A total of 110 children with SCD in steady-state, comprising 64 and 46 SCD children treated with HU (HU+) or with no history of HU therapy (HU-), respectively, were recruited. HbF levels were measured in peripheral blood by alkali denaturation and SNPs were genotyped using polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism. Results: The presence of SNPs (rs11886868, rs6706648, rs7606173 and -158C/T Xmn1) was identified. Observed heterozygosity and homozygosity for the derived alleles were 45.7%, 82.6%, 21.7% and 39.1% in rs11886868, rs6706648, rs7606173 and -158C/T Xmn1 polymorphisms, respectively, for the HU+ population. Observed frequencies of the minor alleles were 0.204, 0.477, 0.171 and 0.190 for rs11886868, rs6706648, rs7606173 and -158C/T Xmn1 polymorphisms, respectively. The three BCL11A SNPs in the HU+ population showed homozygous individuals for rs11886868 (CC), rs6706648 (CC) and heterozygous or homozygous mutant individuals for rs7606173 (CG/GG) having higher HbF values. The combined effect of the SNPs was associated with variance in HbF levels in the HU+ population. The BCL11A SNP, rs6706648 was strongly associated with HbF levels and the C allele frequency, with significantly elevated HbF levels. Conclusion: An association between the various variants and combined effect of SNPs and HbF among children with SCD was found and confirms the known association between HU intake and increased HbF in SCD.

Supplementation of conventional anti-diabetic therapy with alpha-lipoic acid prevents early development and progression of diabetic nephropathy.

BACKGROUND: Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is the leading cause of end-stage renal disease. Current pharmacological interventions only retard DN progression. Alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) is a potent antioxidant with beneficial effect in other diabetic complications. This study investigates whether ALA supplementation prevents early development and progression of DN. METHOD: Fifty-eight male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned to healthy control and diabetic groups and subjected to overnight fasting. Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) was induced in diabetic group by intraperitoneal administration of nicotinamide (110 mg/kg) and streptozotocin (55 mg/kg). On day 3 after T2DM induction, diabetic rats received oral daily administration of ALA (60 mg/kg), gliclazide (15 mg/kg), ramipril (10 mg/kg) or drug combinations for 6 weeks. Untreated diabetic rats served as diabetic control. Blood, kidneys and pancreas were harvested for biochemical and histological analyses. RESULT: Induction of T2DM resulted in hypoinsulinemia, hyperglycemia and renal pathology. ALA supplementation maintained ß-cell function, normoinsulinemia and normoglycemia in diabetic rats, and prevented renal pathology (PAS, KIM-1, plasma creatinine, total protein, blood urea nitrogen, uric acid and urine albumin/creatinine ratio) and triglycerides level compared to diabetic control (p < 0.001). Additionally, ALA supplementation significantly prevented elevated serum and tissue malondialdehyde, collagen deposition, α-SMA expression, apoptosis and serum IL-1ß and IL-6 levels while it markedly increased renal glutathione content and plasma HDL-C compared to diabetic control group (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: ALA supplementation prevents early development and progression of DN by exerting anti-hyperglycemic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-fibrotic and anti-apoptotic effects. Our findings provide additional option for clinical treatment of DN in T2DM patients.

Effect of Metaswitch® dietary supplement on anthropometric parameters, serum lipids, glucose level, oxidative stress and in vivo antioxidant properties in high fat diet-induced overweight Sprague Dawley rats.

PURPOSE: Obesity and overweight are metabolic disorders associated with oxidative stress, and risk factors for many chronic diseases. We sought to investigate the effects of Metaswitch dietary supplement on weight gain and associated acute metabolic alterations in a high-fat diet-induced overweight rat model. METHODS: Female Sprague Dawley (SD) rats were put into 6 groups. Control groups were fed normal (NCD) or high-fat diet (HFD). Treatment groups on HFD receieved 3 different daily doses of Metaswitch for 3 weeks. Another group on HFD received Slimrite® (phenylpropanolamine), a standard drug. Rats on HFD also received cyproheptadine to stimulate appetite. Food consumption and anthropometric parameters were determined weekly. Serum lipids, glucose level, hepatic lipid peroxidation, and antioxidant activity were used to assess overweight in rats. RESULTS: Food intake remained relatively constant among groups. Rats on HFD had significantly increased body weight compared to rats fed NCD. Metaswitch significantly prevented weight gain; this effect was greater or similar to rats administered Slimrite, but was not dose-dependant. No significant changes occurred in the levels of serum lipids and glucose among the groups. However, serum triglyceride (TG) was significantly increased. The TG/HDL-C ratio revealed significant metabolic alterations which was prevented by Metaswitch. Catalase activity was significantly decreased in the HFD untreated group but was restored in Metaswitch-treated groups. CONCLUSIONS: A 3-week HFD regimen with cyproheptadine supplementation in female SD rats resulted in a significant increase in body weight and acute metabolic alterations. The aforementioned changes were found to have been prevented with the administration of Metaswitch.

Genotoxicity, nitric oxide level modulation and cardio-protective potential of Kalanchoe Integra Var. Crenata (Andr.) Cuf Leaves in murine models.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Advancement in cancer therapy has improved survival among patients. However, use of anticancer drugs like anthracyclines (e.g., doxorubicin) is not without adverse effects. Notable among adverse effects of doxorubicin (DOX) is cardiotoxicity, which ranges from mild transient blood pressure changes to potentially serious heart failure. Anecdotal reports suggest that Kalanchoe integra (KI) may have cardio-protective potential. AIMS OF THE STUDY: This study sought to determine the cardio-protective potential of KI against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity and also examined any possible genotoxic potential of KI in selected organs. Additionally, the nitric oxide modulatory potential of KI was assessed. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The leaves of KI were collected, air-dried, pulverised and extracted using 70% ethanol. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) fingerprinting was done for KI. Also, the single-cell gel electrophoresis assay (Comet assay) was employed to ascertain the genotoxic potential of KI. In assessment of cardio-protective potential of KI against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity, a total of 42 female Sprague-Dawley rats were put into 7 groups (n = 6). Group I: vehicle control, received normal saline (1 mL/kg p.o) for 30 days. Group II: toxic control, received DOX (20 mg/kg i.p.) once on the 29th day. Group III: KI control, received KI (300 mg/kg p.o) for 30 days. Group IV: vitamin E control, received vitamin E (100 mg/kg p.o) for 30 days. Group V: KI treated-1, received KI (300 mg/kg p.o) for 30 days and DOX (20 mg/kg i.p) on the 29th day. Group VI: KI treated-2, received KI (600 mg/kg p.o) for 30 days and DOX (20 mg/kg i.p) on the 29th day. Group VII: vitamin E treated, received vitamin E (100 mg/kg p.o) for 30 days and DOX (20 mg/kg i.p) on the 29th day. Thirty-six (36) hours after last administration, rats were sacrificed. Blood samples were taken via cardiac puncture to determine levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), enzymatic antioxidants such as glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT). Nitric oxide level was also determined. Hearts of rats in each group were excised and taken through histopathological examination. RESULTS: In the HPLC fingerprint analysis, 13 peaks were identified, and peak with retention time of 24.0 min had the highest peak area (3.223 x104 mAU). Comet assay showed that the KI extract was non-genotoxic. Pretreatment with KI protected rats against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity as evidenced by the low levels of AST, ALT, ALP, CK and LDH compared with the controls (p < 0.05). SOD, CAT and GPX levels were also high for rats administered KI extracts, further showing that KI protected rats against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity. KI also inhibited nitric oxide levels at 300 mg/kg and 600 mg/kg effective doses. Histological examination revealed that rats pretreated with KI showed no signs of abnormal myocardial fibres (shape, size and configuration). CONCLUSION: Ethanolic (70%) leaf extract of KI showed no genotoxic potential and possessed cardioprotective effects against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity in Sprague-Dawley rats. KI also inhibited nitric oxide production, thus, a potential nitric oxide scavenger.

A Pharmacokinetic Evaluation of a Pectin-Based Oral Multiparticulate Matrix Carrier of Carbamazepine.

BACKGROUND: Carbamazepine is a drug used in the treatment of neurological disorders such as epilepsy. However, due to its erratic absorption, oral bioavailability is often poor. There is, therefore, the need to develop alternative formulations for carbamazepine with better pharmacokinetic characteristics. AIM: The aim of this study was to formulate an oral modified-release multiparticulate matrix of carbamazepine from cocoa pod husk (CPH) pectin and evaluate the pharmacokinetic profile of this formulation using in vitro and in vivo models. METHODS: CPH pectin was extracted from cocoa pod husks with hot aqueous and citric acid solutions. Oral multiparticulate carbamazepine matrices were formulated from CPH pectin cross-linked with calcium. The formulation was evaluated for carbamazepine content and release profile in vitro. For in vivo pharmacokinetic profile estimation, rats were put into 4 groups of 5 animals each to receive carbamazepine multiparticulate matrix formulations A and B, carbamazepine powder, and Tegretol CR®. Animals in each group received 200 mg/kg of each drug via the oral route. Maximum plasma concentration (C max), area under the concentration-time curve (AUC), elimination rate constant (K e ), and terminal half-life (t 1/2) of the formulations were estimated by noncompartmental analysis. RESULTS: The pectin extraction from fresh cocoa pod husks using hot aqueous and citric acid solutions gave pectin yields of 9.63% and 11.54%, respectively. The drug content of carbamazepine in CPH pectin formulations A and B was 95% and 96%, respectively. There was controlled and sustained release of carbamazepine for both formulations A and B in vitro. AUC0⟶36 (176.20 ± 7.97 µg.h/mL), C max (8.45 ± 0.71 µg/mL), T max (12 ± 1.28 h), and t 1/2 (13.75 ± 3.28 h) of formulation A showed a moderately enhanced and comparable pharmacokinetic profile to Tegretol CR® (AUC0⟶36: 155 ± 7.15 µg.h/mL, C max: 8.24 ± 0.45 µg/mL, T max: 8.0 ± 2.23 h, and t 1/2: 13.51 ± 2.87 h). CONCLUSION: Findings from the study suggest that formulations of CPH pectin had the potential to control and maintain therapeutic concentrations of carbamazepine in circulation over a period of time in the rat model.

Toxicity, mutagenicity and trace metal constituent of Termitomyces schimperi (Pat.) R. Heim (Lyophyllaceae) and kaolin, a recipe used traditionally in cancer management in Cote d'Ivoire.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Some local communities in Cote d'Ivoire use the mushroom Termitomyces schimperi combined with kaolin (TSK) to manage various cancers in patients. However, there is a paucity of data on toxicity, mutagenicity and trace metal constituent of TSK. AIM OF THE STUDY: We sought to investigate the acute and sub-chronic toxicities, mutagenic potential, and trace metal constituents of TSK. MATERIALS AND METHODS: To assess acute toxicity, single doses (1000, 3000 and 5000 mg/kg) of aqueous extract of TSK were administrated per os to Sprague Dawley (SD) rats on Day 1. The rats were then monitored for 13 consecutive days. Sub-chronic toxicity was evaluated by daily administration of 200 and 500 mg/kg of the extract per os for 90 consecutive days. SD rats used as control received distilled water. Signs of toxicity, changes in body weight and mortality were monitored. After the aforementioned monitoring processes, rats were sacrificed and blood collected for full blood count and biochemistry analysis. Animal organs were also collected for histopathological examination. The mutagenic potential of the aqueous extract of TSK (10000 µg/mL) on TA98 Salmonella typhimurium was estimated. Additionally, energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (ED-XRF) method was employed to determine trace metal constituents of TSK. RESULTS: Single-dose administration of 5000 mg/kg of TSK did not cause any death in the SD rats; thus, LD50 was above 5000 mg/kg. Administration of 1000 and 3000 mg/kg of the aqueous extract of TSK did not cause any significant change in behaviour and body weight of SD rats during the 14-day monitoring period. However, the mean corpuscular volume and the mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration increased significantly (p < 0.01) among rats administered 1000 and 3000 mg/kg of TSK. There was a significant increase (p < 0.0001) in alanine transaminase levels in rats administered 1000 and 3000 mg/kg of TSK extract compared with control. Conversely, there was a significant decrease (p=0.0122) in serum creatine level among rats administered 1000 and 3000 mg/kg of TSK extract compared with control. After 14 days, there were minimal changes with isolated organs of TSK-treated and control rats. Furthermore, 90-day treatment with extract of TSK caused no significant change in parameters assessed. TSK induced frameshift gene mutation in S. typhimurium before (p < 0.05) and after metabolic activation (p < 0.001). Elemental analysis of TSK revealed the presence of toxic (aluminium) or potentially toxic (silver, rabidium, titanium and zirconium) elements. CONCLUSIONS: The aqueous extract of TSK showed no toxicity (acute and sub-chronic) at doses tested. These findings are consistent with the absence of heavy metals (i.e., cadmium) and potentially toxic elements (i.e., uranium) in TSK samples analysed. TSK showed some level of mutagenic potential. Further mutagenic and chronic toxicity studies on TSK are required.

Ethanolic extract of Nymphaea lotus L. (Nymphaeaceae) leaves exhibits in vitro antioxidant, in vivo anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic activities on Jurkat and MCF-7 cancer cell lines.

BACKGROUND: Nymphaea lotus L. (N. lotus) is an aquatic plant with anecdotal reports suggesting its use in the traditional management of cancer. However, there is a paucity of data on the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic properties of N. lotus in relation to its phytochemical and elemental contents. This study aimed at determining the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic properties of the hydro-ethanolic extract of N. lotus leaves (NLE), and its phenolic, flavonoid and elemental constituents. METHODS: The antioxidant property of NLE was determined using total phenolic and flavonoid, DPPH radical scavenging, lipid peroxidation and reducing power assays. The anti-inflammatory activity of NLE (100-250-500 mg/kg), diclofenac and hydrocortisone (positive controls) were determined by paw oedema and skin prick tests in Sprague Dawley rats. Also, the erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) was determined by Westergren method. The macro/micro-elements content was determined by the XRF method. The cytotoxic property of NLE was determined by the MTT assay, on two cancer cell lines (MCF-7 and Jurkat) and compared to a normal cell line (Chang liver). Inhibitory concentrations were determined as IC50 values (±SEM). RESULTS: The extract had appreciable levels of phenolic and flavonoids compounds and was two-fold more potent in scavenging DPPH radicals than Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). However, NLE was three- and six-fold less potent than ascorbic acid and BHT, respectively, in reducing Fe3+ to Fe2+. The extract was six-fold more potent than gallic acid in inhibiting lipid peroxidation. The extract caused a dose-dependent decrease in rat paw oedema sizes, comparable to diclofenac, and a significant decrease in wheel diameters and ESR. The elemental analysis revealed relevant concentrations of Mg2+, P2+, S2+, K2+, Mn+, Fe+, Cu+, Zn+ and Cd+. The extract exhibited cytotoxic activity on both MCF-7 (IC50 = 155.00 µg/ml) and Jurkat (IC50 = 87.29 µg/ml), with higher selectivity for Jurkat cell line. Interestingly, the extract showed low cytotoxicity to the normal Chang liver cell line (IC50 = 204.20 µg/ml). CONCLUSION: N. lotus leaves extract exhibited high antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and cancer-cell-specific cytotoxic properties. These aforementioned activities could be attributed to its phenolic, flavonoid and elemental constituents.

Effect of Cellgevity® Supplement on Selected Rat Liver Cytochrome P450 Enzyme Activity and Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Carbamazepine.

BACKGROUND: There is considerable evidence that many patients concurrently administer dietary supplements with conventional drugs, creating a risk for potential drug-supplement interaction. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of Cellgevity® supplement on selected rat liver cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes. Also, based on our previous finding, we sought to determine the effect of Cellgevity® on the pharmacokinetics of carbamazepine, a CYP3A4 substrate. METHODS: Male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were randomly put into 5 groups and administered either distilled water (negative control), Cellgevity® (3 separate doses), or phenobarbital (positive control), per os. Modulation of liver CYP enzyme activity was evaluated after 30 days of treatment, using probe substrates, spectroscopic, and high-performance liquid chromatographic methods. In the pharmacokinetic study, 12 SD rats were put into 2 groups and administered carbamazepine plus normal saline (group 1) or carbamazepine plus Cellgevity® (group 2), per os, both over a period of 14 days. Blood samples from rats in the same group were collected after treatment. Serum samples were prepared and pooled together at each specific sampling time point. Levels of carbamazepine were determined using a fluorescence polarization immunoassay. RESULTS: Activities of rat liver CYP1A1/2, CYP2C9, and CYP2D6 were significantly increased by Cellgevity® after 30-day treatment. Pharmacokinetic parameters for rats administered carbamazepine with Cellgevity® vis-a-vis carbamazepine with normal saline were as follows: C max; 20 µmol/L vs 11 µmol/L, AUC0⟶24; 347 µmol h/L vs 170 µmol h/L, K e; 0.28 h-1 vs 0.41 h-1, and t 1/2; 2.3 h vs 1.7 h, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Cellgevity® increased the activity of rat CYP1A1/2, CYP2C9, and CYP2D6 enzymes and was found to alter the pharmacokinetics of carbamazepine in rats.

Serum Iron Levels and Copper-to-Zinc Ratio in Sickle Cell Disease.

Background and Objectives: Altered copper and zinc homeostasis may influence the antioxidant defense system and consequently lead to oxidative stress and associated complications in sickle cell disease (SCD) patients. Iron levels have been reported to increase in sickle cell patients due to frequent blood transfusion, chronic intravenous haemolysis and increased absorption of iron from the gastrointestinal tract. These elevated levels of iron may also lead to extensive oxidative damage. The current study evaluated serum levels of iron, copper and zinc in SCD patients and "healthy" controls. Materials and Methods: The study was a cross-sectional one, comprising 90 SCD patients with Haemoglobin SS and Haemoglobin SC genotypes and 50 HbAA "healthy" controls. Serum levels of iron, copper and zinc were measured using a Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (Variant 240FS manufactured by VARIAN Australia Pty Ltd, VIC, Australia). Copper and zinc ratios were calculated and analyzed. Results: Serum levels of iron and copper were significantly elevated in the SCD patients, compared to their "healthy" counterparts (p < 0.001). These levels were further increased in patients with haemoglobin SS in vaso-occlusive crises (HbSS VOCs). Serum zinc levels were, however, significantly lower in the SCD patients, particularly during vaso-occlusion. The copper-to-zinc ratio was also found to be significantly higher in the SCD patients. Conclusion: Elevated copper-to-zinc ratio may be a biomarker of sickle cell oxidative stress and associated complications. The ratio may also be informative for the management of sickle cell oxidative burden. The significantly lower levels of zinc in the SCD patients may warrant zinc supplementation.

In Vitro Antioxidant Potential and Effect of a Glutathione-Enhancer Dietary Supplement on Selected Rat Liver Cytochrome P450 Enzyme Activity.

BACKGROUND: There is considerable evidence that many people take dietary supplements including those of herbal origin as an alternative therapy to improve their health. One such supplement, with an amalgam of constituents, is CellGevity®. However, the effect of this dietary supplement on drug-metabolizing enzymes is poorly understood, as it has not been studied extensively. Therefore, we investigated the effect of CellGevity dietary supplement on selected rat liver microsomal cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes, the most common drug-metabolizing enzymes. We also determined the total antioxidant potential of this dietary supplement in vitro. METHODS: To determine the antioxidant potential of CellGevity dietary supplement, 2,2-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH), total phenolic, and flavonoid assays were used after initial preparation of a solution form of the supplement (low dose, LD; 4 mg/kg and high dose, HD; 8 mg/kg). Rats received oral administration of these doses of the supplement for 7 days, after which the effect of the supplement on selected liver CYP enzymes was assessed using probe substrates and spectroscopic and high-performance liquid chromatographic methods. Rats which received daily administration of 80 mg/kg of phenobarbitone and distilled water served as positive and negative controls, respectively. RESULTS: The IC50 value of the supplement 0.34 ± 0.07 mg/ml compared to 0.076 ± 0.03 mg/ml of the BHT (positive control). The total phenolic content of the supplement at a concentration of 2.5 mg/ml was 34.97 g gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/100 g while its total flavonoid content at a concentration of 2.5 mg/ml was 6 g quercetin equivalent (QE)/100 g. The supplement significantly inhibited rat CYP2B1/2B2 (LDT 92.4%; HDT 100%), CYP3A4 (LDT 81.2%; HDT 71.7%), and CYP2C9 (LDT 21.7%; HDT 28.5%) while it had no significant inhibitory effect on CYPs 1A1/1A2, CYP1A2, and CYP2D6. CONCLUSION: CellGevity dietary supplement possesses moderate antioxidant activity in vitro and has an inhibitory effect on selected rat liver CYP enzymes, suggesting its potential interaction with drugs metabolized by CYP enzymes.

Antidepressant Potentials of Components from Trichilia monadelpha (Thonn.) J.J. de Wilde in Murine Models.

Trichilia monadelpha is a common medicinal plant used traditionally in treating central nervous system conditions such as epilepsy, depression, pain, and psychosis. In this study, the antidepressant-like effect of crude extracts of the stem bark of T. monadelpha was investigated using two classical murine models, forced swimming test (FST) and tail suspension test (TST). The extracts, petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, and hydroethanolic extracts (30-300 mg/kg, p.o.), standard drug (imipramine; fluoxetine, 3-30 mg/kg, p.o.), and saline (vehicle) were given to mice one hour prior to the acute study. In a separate experiment the components (flavonoids, saponins, alkaloids, tannins, and terpenoids; 30-300 mg/kg, p.o.) from the most efficacious extract fraction were screened to ascertain which components possessed the antidepressant effect. All the extracts and components significantly induced a decline in immobility in the FST and TST, indicative of an antidepressant-like activity. The extracts and some components showed increase in swimming and climbing in the FST as well as a significant enhancement in swinging and/or curling scores in the TST, suggesting a possible involvement of monoaminergic and/or opioidergic activity. This study reveals the antidepressant-like potential of the stem bark extracts and components of T. monadelpha.

Analgesic effects of a hydro-ethanolic whole plant extract of Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn in paclitaxel-induced neuropathic pain in rats.

BACKGROUND: Synedrella nodiflora is used by traditional healers in Ghana for the management of epilepsy and pain. The hydro-ethanolic extract of the whole plant has demonstrated antinociceptive effect in various animal models of pain. This study investigated the potential benefit of the hydro-ethanolic extract in a rat model of paclitaxel-induced neuropathic pain. METHODS: Neuropathy was induced in rats by a continuous intraperitoneal administration of paclitaxel (2 mg/kg) for 5 days. Baseline latencies to thermal pain were recorded before the first injection of paclitaxel and during the 5 day induction period. Following the induction, the rats in designated treatment group were treated with the hydro-ethanolic extract (100, 300 and 1000 mg/kg, p.o) or pregabalin (10, 30 and 100 mg/kg) or vehicle (distilled water) and their responses to thermal hyperalgesia measured every 30 for a total period of 3 h. RESULTS: There was a significant difference between the baseline reaction latency and what was observed on the 5th day of the induction of neuropathy. Two days after the induction of neuropathy, the extract and pregabalin significantly and dose-dependently produced antinociceptive effect during the 3-h test period. CONCLUSION: The hydro-ethanolic extract of the whole plant of Synedrella nodiflora possess analgesic effect in paclitaxel-induced neuropathy in rats.

Assessment of formulated amodiaquine microparticles in Leishmania donovani infected rats.

The aim of this study was to formulate, characterise and evaluate the activity of amodiaquine microparticles against Leishmania donovani. Microparticles were formulated by encapsulating the drug in bovine serum albumin using the spray-dryer method. The microparticles were evaluated for size, zeta potential, drug content, encapsulation efficiency and in vitro release profile. The size range of the microparticles formulated was between 1.9 and 10 µm with an average zeta potential of -25.5 mV. Of the expected 20% drug loading, an average of 18.27% was obtained giving an encapsulation efficiency of 91.35%. Pharmacokinetic profile of amodiaquine improved with microencapsulation of the drug with Cmax, AUC0→48 and t1//2 all significantly higher than amodiaquine solution. Amodiaquine microparticles showed an overall higher bioavailability and hence were more effective in eliminating intra-tissue parasites than the drug solution. It would therefore be expected that the formulated microparticles will be more effective in treating visceral leishmaniasis.

Long-term continuous administration of a hydro-ethanolic extract of Synedrella nodiflora (L) Gaertn in male Sprague-Dawley rats: biochemical, haematological and histopathological changes.

BACKGROUND: Conflicting reports about the toxicity of Synedrella nodiflora (L) Gaertn (family Asteraceae), a plant traditionally used in Ghana for the management of epilepsy, abound in literature. The present study evaluates the effect of a 90-day continuous oral administration of a hydro-ethanolic whole plant extract of Synedrella nodiflora (SNE) in male Sprague-Dawley rats. METHODS: The toxicological evaluation of the extract (100, 300 and 1000 mgkg-1) was focused on haematological, serum biochemical parameters and histopathological changes of some isolated organs. RESULTS: The extract produced no mortality in the rats treated during the study period. Only SNE 100 mgkg-1 produced significant decrease in white blood cell and neutrophil counts and an increase in albumin, globulin, total bilirubin, total protein and potassium levels. The higher doses (SNE 300 and 1000 mgkg-1) had no significant effect on all the haematological and biochemical parameters measured. Histopathological assessment of the liver, kidney and heart revealed no abnormalities in rats treated with the extracts. Only the SNE 1000 mgkg-1 produced distortions of the branching arrangements of the myocardial fibres and a congested vessel which indicates a healed infarction. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest hydro-ethanolic extract of Synedrella nodiflora (L) Gaertn generally has a low toxicity profile following a 90-day continuous oral administration in male Sprague-Dawley rats under the present laboratory conditions. However patients with renal or cardiac problems should use the plant with caution. FUNDING: Jointly supported by the International Foundation for Science, Stockholm, Sweden, through a grant (# F/5191-1) to Dr. Patrick Amoateng and the Office of Research, Innovation and Development (ORID), University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana, grant awarded to Dr. Patrick Amoateng (reference number: URF/6/ILG-002/2012-2013).

Macro- and Microelemental Composition and Toxicity of Unsweetened Natural Cocoa Powder in Sprague-Dawley Rats.

Unsweetened natural cocoa powder (UNCP) is a pulverized high-grade powder of compressed solid blocks which remains after extraction. Little scientific data is available concerning its safety despite the presence of potential toxic elements. Elemental composition in UNCP was analyzed with ED-XRF spectroscopy. Single oral high dose toxicity study was conducted on adult male Sprague-Dawley rats (150 g) by the limit test method. One group received water and the test group 2000 mg/kg UNCP. All animals were observed for 14 days and then euthanized for haematological, biochemical, and histopathological examinations. Thirty-eight (38) elements were found in UNCP. There was an increase in HDL cholesterol (p < 0.05), reduction in LDL cholesterol (p > 0.05), alkaline phosphatase (p < 0.05), and creatinine levels, and slight increase in urea levels (p > 0.05). Haematological changes were not significant. Histopathological analysis showed no toxic effect on the heart, liver, kidney, lungs, testis, and spleen. Intestinal erosion was observed in the test group. UNCP appears to be relatively safe when taken as a single oral high dose of 2000 mg/kg b.w.t. in rats. Caution should however be exercised at high doses due to the high elemental content of copper and high possibility of intestinal lining erosion.

Unsweetened Natural Cocoa Powder Has the Potential to Attenuate High Dose Artemether-Lumefantrine-Induced Hepatotoxicity in Non-Malarious Guinea Pigs.

Objective. This study investigated the elemental composition of unsweetened natural cocoa powder (UNCP), its effect on nitric oxide, and its hepatoprotective potential during simultaneous administration with high-dose artemether/lumefantrine (A/L). Method. Macro- and microelements in UNCP were analyzed with EDXRF spectroscopy. Thirty (30) male guinea-pigs were then divided into five groups. For groups 3 (low-dose), 4 (medium-dose), and 5 (high-dose), the animals received oral UNCP prophylactically for 14 days. Group 1 received distilled water (14 days) and group 2 A/L for the last 3 days (days 12 to 14). After euthanisation, biochemical and histopathological examinations were carried out in all groups. Results. Phytochemical analysis of UNCP showed the presence of saponins, flavonoids, tannins, and cardiac glycosides. Thirty-eight (38) macro- and microelements were found. UNCP produced significant decreases in ALT, ALP, GGT, and AST levels. A significant increase in total protein levels was observed during A/L+UNCP administration in comparison to 75 mg/kg A/L group. Histopathological examinations buttressed the protective effects of cocoa administration. UNCP administration increased nitric oxide levels 149.71% (P < 0.05) compared to controls. Conclusion. UNCP increases nitric oxide levels and has hepatoprotective potential during A/L administration. A high level of copper was observed which may be detrimental during high daily consumptions of UNCP.

Antibacterial and antispasmodic activities of a dichloromethane fraction of an ethanol extract of stem bark of Piliostigma reticulatum.

OBJECTIVES: This study presents the antispasmodic and antibacterial properties of an ethanol extract and fractions the of stem bark of Piliostigma reticulatum. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The antispasmodic effects of the extract and its fractions were performed on isolated rabbit duodenum. The antibacterial properties were determined as minimal inhibitory and bactericidal concentration of the extract and fractions of P. reticulatum on susceptible and resistant strains of Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, Staphylococcus aureus, Shigella dysenteriae and Salmonella tiphymurium. RESULTS: The ethanol extract of P. reticulatum and fractions (except for heptane) produced concentration-dependent relaxant effects on isolated duodenum preparations. The IC50 of the extract and dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, butanol and aqueous fractions are 0.88452, 0.2453, 0.2909, 0.3946 and 0.3231 mg/ml respectively. The extract was found to significantly antagonize acetylcholine-induced contraction. The susceptible strains E. coli and V. cholerae were the most inhibited by the dichloromethane fraction at 60 mg/mL, as shown by their diameter of inhibition of 13.2 ± 0.76 and 13.3 ± 0.67 mm respectively. Conversely, the dichloromethane fraction, the most active antibacterial fraction, did not inhibit the resistant strains S. dysenteriae and S. tiphymurium. CONCLUSION: The results showed that P. reticulatum stem bark possesses spasmolytic and antibacterial properties and this may contribute to its traditional medicinal use for the treatment of diarrhea.

A hydro-ethanolic extract of Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn ameliorates hyperalgesia and allodynia in vincristine-induced neuropathic pain in rats.

BACKGROUND: The hydro-ethanolic extract of Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn whole plant has demonstrated analgesic effects in acute pain models. The extract has also demonstrated anticonvulsant effects in murine models of experimental epilepsy. The present study illustrates an evaluation of the hydro-ethanolic extract of the plant for possible analgesic properties in hyperalgesia and allodynia associated with vincristine-induced neuropathy in rats. METHODS: Neuropathic pain was induced in Sprague-Dawley rats by injecting 100 µg/kg of vincristine sulphate on alternative days for 6 days (days 0, 2, 4, 8, 10 and 12). Vincristine-induced cold allodynia, mechanical hyperalgesia and thermal hyperalgesia were measured pre-vincristine administration and on days 15, 17 and 19 post-vincristine administration. The rats were then treated with S. nodiflora extract (SNE) (100, 300 and 1000 mg/kg), pregabalin (10, 30 and 100 mg/kg) and distilled water as vehicle daily for 5 days and pain thresholds were measured on alternate days for 3 days. RESULTS: SNE and pregabalin produced analgesic properties observed as increased paw withdrawal latencies to mechanical, tactile, cold water stimuli and thermal hyperalgesic tests during the 5 days of treatment. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that hydro-ethanolic extract of S. nodiflora possesses anti-hyperalgesic and anti-allodynic effects in vincristine-induced neuropathic pain in rats.

Oxidative capacities of cardiac and skeletal muscles of heart transplant recipients: mitochondrial effects of cyclosporin-A and its vehicle Cremophor-EL.

Chronic immunosuppressive treatment was suspected to alter maximal muscle oxidative capacity (Vmax ) of heart transplant recipients, leading to a limitation of their exercise tolerance. It remains undefined whether the mitochondrial respiratory chain (MRC) of right ventricle (RV) and vastus lateralis (VL) muscles were altered by immunosuppressants and/or their vehicles. Vmax was measured polarographically in saponin-skinned fibres of RV and VL biopsies of patients and compared with Vmax of healthy VL and myocardium. Effects of increasing concentrations (1-10-100 µM) of Sandimmune(®) , its vehicle, Cyclosporine (CsA) in ethanol (EtOH), or EtOH alone were tested. The vehicle's effects on MRC complexes were investigated using specific substrates and inhibitors. Ten months after grafting, Vmax of RV and VL of immunosuppressed patients were similar to their Vmax at time of transplantation and to that of control tissues. In Vitro, Sandimmune(®) significantly decreased Vmax while CsA in EtOH or EtOH exerted small and similar effects. Effects of the vehicle were higher than (RV) or identical to (VL) those of Sandimmune(®) . The sites of action of the vehicle on MRC were located on complexes I and IV. While unchanged under chronic immunosuppressive therapy, Vmax of RV and VL muscles was depressed by acute exposure to intravenous Sandimmune(®) in vitro, an effect attributed to its vehicle by inhibition of complexes I and IV of the MRC. This work provides an in vitro proof of a toxic effect on the mitochondria respiratory chain of the vehicle used in the intravenous formulation of Sandimmune(®) but with no clinical consequences in chronically immunosuppressed patients.