Cell-specific transcriptional control of mitochondrial metabolism by TIF1γ drives erythropoiesis.

Transcription and metabolism both influence cell function, but dedicated transcriptional control of metabolic pathways that regulate cell fate has rarely been defined. We discovered, using a chemical suppressor screen, that inhibition of the pyrimidine biosynthesis enzyme dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH) rescues erythroid differentiation in bloodless zebrafish moonshine (mon) mutant embryos defective for transcriptional intermediary factor 1 gamma (tif1γ). This rescue depends on the functional link of DHODH to mitochondrial respiration. The transcription elongation factor TIF1γ directly controls coenzyme Q (CoQ) synthesis gene expression. Upon tif1γ loss, CoQ levels are reduced, and a high succinate/α-ketoglutarate ratio leads to increased histone methylation. A CoQ analog rescues mon's bloodless phenotype. These results demonstrate that mitochondrial metabolism is a key output of a lineage transcription factor that drives cell fate decisions in the early blood lineage.

Allosteric inhibitors of Mycobacterium tuberculosis tryptophan synthase.

Global dispersion of multidrug resistant bacteria is very common and evolution of antibiotic-resistance is occurring at an alarming rate, presenting a formidable challenge for humanity. The development of new therapeuthics with novel molecular targets is urgently needed. Current drugs primarily affect protein, nucleic acid, and cell wall synthesis. Metabolic pathways, including those involved in amino acid biosynthesis, have recently sparked interest in the drug discovery community as potential reservoirs of such novel targets. Tryptophan biosynthesis, utilized by bacteria but absent in humans, represents one of the currently studied processes with a therapeutic focus. It has been shown that tryptophan synthase (TrpAB) is required for survival of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in macrophages and for evading host defense, and therefore is a promising drug target. Here we present crystal structures of TrpAB with two allosteric inhibitors of M. tuberculosis tryptophan synthase that belong to sulfolane and indole-5-sulfonamide chemical scaffolds. We compare our results with previously reported structural and biochemical studies of another, azetidine-containing M. tuberculosis tryptophan synthase inhibitor. This work shows how structurally distinct ligands can occupy the same allosteric site and make specific interactions. It also highlights the potential benefit of targeting more variable allosteric sites of important metabolic enzymes.

Conservation of the structure and function of bacterial tryptophan synthases.

Tryptophan biosynthesis is one of the most characterized processes in bacteria, in which the enzymes from Salmonella typhimurium and Escherichia coli serve as model systems. Tryptophan synthase (TrpAB) catalyzes the final two steps of tryptophan biosynthesis in plants, fungi and bacteria. This pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP)-dependent enzyme consists of two protein chains, α (TrpA) and ß (TrpB), functioning as a linear αßßα heterotetrameric complex containing two TrpAB units. The reaction has a complicated, multistep mechanism resulting in the ß-replacement of the hydroxyl group of l-serine with an indole moiety. Recent studies have shown that functional TrpAB is required for the survival of pathogenic bacteria in macrophages and for evading host defense. Therefore, TrpAB is a promising target for drug discovery, as its orthologs include enzymes from the important human pathogens Streptococcus pneumoniae, Legionella pneumophila and Francisella tularensis, the causative agents of pneumonia, legionnaires' disease and tularemia, respectively. However, specific biochemical and structural properties of the TrpABs from these organisms have not been investigated. To fill the important phylogenetic gaps in the understanding of TrpABs and to uncover unique features of TrpAB orthologs to spearhead future drug-discovery efforts, the TrpABs from L. pneumophila, F. tularensis and S. pneumoniae have been characterized. In addition to kinetic properties and inhibitor-sensitivity data, structural information gathered using X-ray crystallo-graphy is presented. The enzymes show remarkable structural conservation, but at the same time display local differences in both their catalytic and allosteric sites that may be responsible for the observed differences in catalysis and inhibitor binding. This functional dissimilarity may be exploited in the design of species-specific enzyme inhibitors.

A small-molecule allosteric inhibitor of Mycobacterium tuberculosis tryptophan synthase.

New antibiotics with novel targets are greatly needed. Bacteria have numerous essential functions, but only a small fraction of such processes-primarily those involved in macromolecular synthesis-are inhibited by current drugs. Targeting metabolic enzymes has been the focus of recent interest, but effective inhibitors have been difficult to identify. We describe a synthetic azetidine derivative, BRD4592, that kills Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) through allosteric inhibition of tryptophan synthase (TrpAB), a previously untargeted, highly allosterically regulated enzyme. BRD4592 binds at the TrpAB α-ß-subunit interface and affects multiple steps in the enzyme's overall reaction, resulting in inhibition not easily overcome by changes in metabolic environment. We show that TrpAB is required for the survival of Mtb and Mycobacterium marinum in vivo and that this requirement may be independent of an adaptive immune response. This work highlights the effectiveness of allosteric inhibition for targeting proteins that are naturally highly dynamic and that are essential in vivo, despite their apparent dispensability under in vitro conditions, and suggests a framework for the discovery of a next generation of allosteric inhibitors.

Selective Chemical Inhibition of PGC-1α Gluconeogenic Activity Ameliorates Type 2 Diabetes.

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a worldwide epidemic with a medical need for additional targeted therapies. Suppression of hepatic glucose production (HGP) effectively ameliorates diabetes and can be exploited for its treatment. We hypothesized that targeting PGC-1α acetylation in the liver, a chemical modification known to inhibit hepatic gluconeogenesis, could be potentially used for treatment of T2D. Thus, we designed a high-throughput chemical screen platform to quantify PGC-1α acetylation in cells and identified small molecules that increase PGC-1α acetylation, suppress gluconeogenic gene expression, and reduce glucose production in hepatocytes. On the basis of potency and bioavailability, we selected a small molecule, SR-18292, that reduces blood glucose, strongly increases hepatic insulin sensitivity, and improves glucose homeostasis in dietary and genetic mouse models of T2D. These studies have important implications for understanding the regulatory mechanisms of glucose metabolism and treatment of T2D.

A substrate-driven allosteric switch that enhances PDI catalytic activity.

Protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) is an oxidoreductase essential for folding proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum. The domain structure of PDI is a-b-b'-x-a', wherein the thioredoxin-like a and a' domains mediate disulfide bond shuffling and b and b' domains are substrate binding. The b' and a' domains are connected via the x-linker, a 19-amino-acid flexible peptide. Here we identify a class of compounds, termed bepristats, that target the substrate-binding pocket of b'. Bepristats reversibly block substrate binding and inhibit platelet aggregation and thrombus formation in vivo. Ligation of the substrate-binding pocket by bepristats paradoxically enhances catalytic activity of a and a' by displacing the x-linker, which acts as an allosteric switch to augment reductase activity in the catalytic domains. This substrate-driven allosteric switch is also activated by peptides and proteins and is present in other thiol isomerases. Our results demonstrate a mechanism whereby binding of a substrate to thiol isomerases enhances catalytic activity of remote domains.

Inhibitors of Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3 with Exquisite Kinome-Wide Selectivity and Their Functional Effects.

The mood stabilizer lithium, the first-line treatment for bipolar disorder, is hypothesized to exert its effects through direct inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3) and indirectly by increasing GSK3's inhibitory serine phosphorylation. GSK3 comprises two highly similar paralogs, GSK3α and GSK3ß, which are key regulatory kinases in the canonical Wnt pathway. GSK3 stands as a nodal target within this pathway and is an attractive therapeutic target for multiple indications. Despite being an active field of research for the past 20 years, many GSK3 inhibitors demonstrate either poor to moderate selectivity versus the broader human kinome or physicochemical properties unsuitable for use in in vitro systems or in vivo models. A nonconventional analysis of data from a GSK3ß inhibitor high-throughput screening campaign, which excluded known GSK3 inhibitor chemotypes, led to the discovery of a novel pyrazolo-tetrahydroquinolinone scaffold with unparalleled kinome-wide selectivity for the GSK3 kinases. Taking advantage of an uncommon tridentate interaction with the hinge region of GSK3, we developed highly selective and potent GSK3 inhibitors, BRD1652 and BRD0209, which demonstrated in vivo efficacy in a dopaminergic signaling paradigm modeling mood-related disorders. These new chemical probes open the way for exclusive analyses of the function of GSK3 kinases in multiple signaling pathways involved in many prevalent disorders.

Indolinyl-Thiazole Based Inhibitors of Scavenger Receptor-BI (SR-BI)-Mediated Lipid Transport.

A potent class of indolinyl-thiazole based inhibitors of cellular lipid uptake mediated by scavenger receptor, class B, type I (SR-BI) was identified via a high-throughput screen of the National Institutes of Health Molecular Libraries Small Molecule Repository (NIH MLSMR) in an assay measuring the uptake of the fluorescent lipid DiI from HDL particles. This class of compounds is represented by ML278 (17-11), a potent (average IC50 = 6 nM) and reversible inhibitor of lipid uptake via SR-BI. ML278 is a plasma-stable, noncytotoxic probe that exhibits moderate metabolic stability, thus displaying improved properties for in vitro and in vivo studies. Strikingly, ML278 and previously described inhibitors of lipid transport share the property of increasing the binding of HDL to SR-BI, rather than blocking it, suggesting there may be similarities in their mechanisms of action.

Discovery of bisamide-heterocycles as inhibitors of scavenger receptor BI (SR-BI)-mediated lipid uptake.

A new series of potent inhibitors of cellular lipid uptake from HDL particles mediated by scavenger receptor, class B, type I (SR-BI) was identified. The series was identified via a high-throughput screen of the National Institutes of Health Molecular Libraries Small Molecule Repository (NIH MLSMR) that measured the transfer of the fluorescent lipid DiI from HDL particles to CHO cells overexpressing SR-BI. The series is characterized by a linear peptidomimetic scaffold with two adjacent amide groups, as well as an aryl-substituted heterocycle. Analogs of the initial hit were rapidly prepared via Ugi 4-component reaction, and select enantiopure compounds were prepared via a stepwise sequence. Structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies suggest an oxygenated arene is preferred at the western end of the molecule, as well as highly lipophilic substituents on the central and eastern nitrogens. Compound 5e, with (R)-stereochemistry at the central carbon, was designated as probe ML279. Mechanistic studies indicate that ML279 stabilizes the interaction of HDL particles with SR-BI, and its effect is reversible. It shows good potency (IC50=17 nM), is non-toxic, plasma stable, and has improved solubility over our alternative probe ML278.

Target-based identification of whole-cell active inhibitors of biotin biosynthesis in Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Biotin biosynthesis is essential for survival and persistence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) in vivo. The aminotransferase BioA, which catalyzes the antepenultimate step in the biotin pathway, has been established as a promising target due to its vulnerability to chemical inhibition. We performed high-throughput screening (HTS) employing a fluorescence displacement assay and identified a diverse set of potent inhibitors including many diversity-oriented synthesis (DOS) scaffolds. To efficiently select only hits targeting biotin biosynthesis, we then deployed a whole-cell counterscreen in biotin-free and biotin-containing medium against wild-type Mtb and in parallel with isogenic bioA Mtb strains that possess differential levels of BioA expression. This counterscreen proved crucial to filter out compounds whose whole-cell activity was off target as well as identify hits with weak, but measurable whole-cell activity in BioA-depleted strains. Several of the most promising hits were cocrystallized with BioA to provide a framework for future structure-based drug design efforts.

Stereocontrolled synthesis of the tricyclic ABC ring system of daphnicyclidin A.

An enantiocontrolled synthesis pathway has been developed to provide formation of tricyclic amine 7, representing the ABC ring system of the complex alkaloid daphnicyclidin A (1). Our efforts describe preparation of the Z-hexahydro-(1H)-azocine 29 and cyclization to construct the novel 4-azabicyclo[5.3.2]dodecane 31. Transannular reductive amination following the deprotection of 31 gave the desired tertiary amine 7.

Identification of novel inhibitors of nonreplicating Mycobacterium tuberculosis using a carbon starvation model.

During Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection, a population of bacteria is thought to exist in a nonreplicating state, refractory to antibiotics, which may contribute to the need for prolonged antibiotic therapy. The identification of inhibitors of the nonreplicating state provides tools that can be used to probe this hypothesis and the physiology of this state. The development of such inhibitors also has the potential to shorten the duration of antibiotic therapy required. Here we describe the development of a novel nonreplicating assay amenable to high-throughput chemical screening coupled with secondary assays that use carbon starvation as the in vitro model. Together these assays identify compounds with activity against replicating and nonreplicating M. tuberculosis as well as compounds that inhibit the transition from nonreplicating to replicating stages of growth. Using these assays we successfully screened over 300,000 compounds and identified 786 inhibitors of nonreplicating M. tuberculosis In order to understand the relationship among different nonreplicating models, we tested 52 of these molecules in a hypoxia model, and four different chemical scaffolds in a stochastic persister model, and a streptomycin-dependent model. We found that compounds display varying levels of activity in different models for the nonreplicating state, suggesting important differences in bacterial physiology between models. Therefore, chemical tools identified in this assay may be useful for determining the relevance of different nonreplicating in vitro models to in vivo M. tuberculosis infection. Given our current limited understanding, molecules that are active across multiple models may represent more promising candidates for further development.

ML212: A small-molecule probe for investigating fluconazole resistance mechanisms in Candida albicans.

The National Institutes of Health Molecular Libraries and Probe Production Centers Network (NIH-MLPCN) screened >300,000 compounds to evaluate their ability to restore fluconazole susceptibility in resistant Candida albicans isolates. Additional counter screens were incorporated to remove substances inherently toxic to either mammalian or fungal cells. A substituted indazole possessing the desired bioactivity profile was selected for further development, and initial investigation of structure-activity relationships led to the discovery of ML212.

Cinnamides as selective small-molecule inhibitors of a cellular model of breast cancer stem cells.

A high-throughput screen (HTS) was conducted against stably propagated cancer stem cell (CSC)-enriched populations using a library of 300,718 compounds from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Molecular Libraries Small Molecule Repository (MLSMR). A cinnamide analog displayed greater than 20-fold selective inhibition of the breast CSC-like cell line (HMLE_sh_Ecad) over the isogenic control cell line (HMLE_sh_eGFP). Herein, we report structure-activity relationships of this class of cinnamides for selective lethality towards CSC-enriched populations.

Macrocyclic Hedgehog Pathway Inhibitors: Optimization of Cellular Activity and Mode of Action Studies.

Macrocyclic Hedgehog (Hh) pathway inhibitors have been discovered with improved potency and maximal inhibition relative to the previously reported macrocycle robotnikinin. Analogues were prepared using a modular and efficient build-couple-pair (BCP) approach, with a ring-closing metathesis step to form the macrocyclic ring. Varying the position of the macrocycle nitrogen and oxygen atoms provided inhibitors with improved activity in cellular assays; the most potent analogue was 29 (BRD-6851), with an IC(50) of 0.4 µM against C3H10T1/2 cells undergoing Hh-induced activation, as measured by Gli1 transcription and alkaline phosphatase induction. Studies with Patched knockout (Ptch(-/-)) cells and competition studies with the Smoothened (Smo) agonists SAG and purmorphamine demonstrate that in contrast to robotnikinin, select analogues are Smo antagonists.

Phenotypic high-throughput screening elucidates target pathway in breast cancer stem cell-like cells.

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are resistant to standard cancer treatments and are likely responsible for cancer recurrence, but few therapies target this subpopulation. Due to the difficulty in propagating CSCs outside of the tumor environment, previous work identified CSC-like cells by inducing human breast epithelial cells into an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transdifferentiated state (HMLE_sh_ECad). A phenotypic screen was conducted against HMLE_sh_ECad with 300 718 compounds from the Molecular Libraries Small Molecule Repository to identify selective inhibitors of CSC growth. The screen yielded 2244 hits that were evaluated for toxicity and selectivity toward an isogenic control cell line. An acyl hydrazone scaffold emerged as a potent and selective scaffold targeting HMLE_sh_ECad. Fifty-three analogues were acquired and tested; compounds ranged in potency from 790 nM to inactive against HMLE_sh_ECad. Of the analogues, ML239 was best-in-class with an IC(50)= 1.18 µM against HMLE_sh_ECad, demonstrated a >23-fold selectivity over the control line, and was toxic to another CSC-like line, HMLE_shTwist, and a breast carcinoma cell line, MDA-MB-231. Gene expression studies conducted with ML239-treated cells showed altered gene expression in the NF-κB pathway in the HMLE_sh_ECad line but not in the isogenic control line. Future studies will be directed toward the identification of ML239 target(s).

Identification of a selective small molecule inhibitor of breast cancer stem cells.

A high-throughput screen (HTS) with the National Institute of Health-Molecular Libraries Small Molecule Repository (NIH-MLSMR) compound collection identified a class of acyl hydrazones to be selectively lethal to breast cancer stem cell (CSC) enriched populations. Medicinal chemistry efforts were undertaken to optimize potency and selectivity of this class of compounds. The optimized compound was declared as a probe (ML239) with the NIH Molecular Libraries Program and displayed greater than 20-fold selective inhibition of the breast CSC-like cell line (HMLE_sh_Ecad) over the isogenic control line (HMLE_sh_GFP).

Strategies for the synthesis of the novel antitumor agent peloruside A.

The microtubule-stabilizing agent (+)-peloruside A has emerged as a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of cancer. Two total syntheses have been published and these reports have stimulated additional studies to advance the methodology and strategies for accessing this molecular architecture. This review details the biological data, modeling and conformation analyses, and synthetic studies toward the synthesis of (+)-peloruside A, that were reported prior to December 2007.

Studies of the generation and pericyclic behavior of cyclic pentadienyl carbanions. Alkylation reactions as an efficient route to functionalized cis-bicyclo[3.3.0]octenes.

Carbolithiation has been studied with alkyllithium reagents in a series of six- through nine-membered 3-methylene-1,4-cycloalkadienes, efficiently producing the corresponding cyclic pentadienyl carbanions. These pentadienyl anions display unique reactivity, depending on ring size. Cyclooctadienyl anions readily undergo disrotatory electrocyclization to cis-bicyclo[3.3.0]octenyl systems, which are trapped with a variety of electrophiles to stereoselectively provide functionalized cis-bicyclo[3.3.0]octenes. The carbolithiation and electrocyclization processes are examined using low-temperature (1)H NMR experiments. An expedient synthesis of a linear triquinane illustrates this methodology. Electrocyclization of the corresponding cyclononadienyl anion requires unusually high temperatures (120 degrees C), and computational studies provide insights into this change in reactivity. Cycloheptadienyl and cyclohexadienyl anions, generated via carbolithiation, provide functionalized cycloheptadienes and cyclohexadienes upon electrophilic capture. Trapping experiments reveal that the cycloheptadienyl anions are transformed to heptatrienyl anions. A series of experiments have been designed to explore evidence for the feasibility of equilibration of open and closed anionic systems, and these studies report the first isolation of a cis-bicyclo[3.1.0]hexene derived from electrocyclization of a cyclohexadienyl carbanion.

Samarium Barbier reactions of alpha-iodomethyloxazoles and thiazoles with aliphatic aldehydes.

[reaction: see text] The reductive coupling of substituted alpha-iodomethyloxazoles and thiazoles with aliphatic aldehydes under Barbier conditions provides an effective method for the direct incorporation of intact heterocyclic systems.