The syndemic effect of COVID-19 and racial discrimination on suicide risk for Black emerging adults: Examining a model of radical healing.

Suicide is a leading cause of death among Black emerging adults. The concurrent effect of the COVID-19 pandemic and racial discrimination were projected to exacerbate suicide vulnerability for Black Americans. The purpose of the present study was to utilize a risk-resilience model to examine the effects of racial discrimination and COVID-related stress on suicide risk for Black emerging adults, as well as the moderating effect of three central components of radical healing: critical consciousness, resilience, and cultural authenticity. Study participants included 521 Black emerging adults between the ages of 18 and 29 (51.6% male; Mage = 24.6, SD = 2.6) who completed measures evaluating symptoms of racial discrimination, COVID-related stress, suicide risk, and psychological well-being. After controlling for age, gender, socioeconomic status, and general stress, structural equation modeling analyses revealed unique and interactive effects of racial discrimination, COVID-related stress, and culturally relevant protective factors on suicide risk for Black emerging adults. These findings provide preliminary insight into novel risk and protective factors that influence suicide risk for Black emerging adults. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Racism in counseling and psychotherapy: Illuminate and disarm.

For the first time in its 130-year history, the American Psychological Association formally admitted to its ugly racist past and acknowledged how White supremacy continues to pervade the profession. Although the apology spans the entire field of psychology, the primary focus of this article is on how the profession of counseling and psychotherapy has reinforced and contributed to the oppression of people of color. First, we contend that psychology mirrors cultural racism/White supremacy and represents the major framework from which psychologists and other social scientists with power and privilege located the source of problems within people of color, their family values/structures, and their communities. Second, we maintain that the concept of professionalism has resulted in four legitimizing pillars of counseling and psychotherapy in which polarities are created that value universalism over relativism, individualism over collectivism, objectivism over subjectivism, and empiricism over experientialism. These four foundations of a White epistemology channel and subsidize racism by equating racial/cultural differences with pathology; promoting color and power blindness; blaming the victim; dehumanization and objectification; and denial of different racial realities. Last, we offer solutions for dismantling racism in counseling and psychotherapy. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Shifting the gaze from racism to healing from racism: A systematic review of selected psychology journals from 1992 to 2022.

Using a decolonial approach, we provided a narrative review of the research on racism in psychology and conducted a systematic review of the top five psychology journals publishing research on racism and mental health to identify trends in racism research over time and the research gaps. We examined 372 articles on racism published between 1992 and 2022: American Psychologist, Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, Journal of Black Psychology, Journal of Counseling Psychology, and The Counseling Psychologist. Based on our review, we found that published research examining racism has steadily increased over the past 3 decades, with the greatest spikes in 2021 and 2022. The largest increase was in studies focused on People of Color's experiences with racism. The overwhelming majority of the articles were empirical (86.3%) and most of these studies (87.5%) employed cross-sectional designs. We identified corollary topics by racial/ethnic group, prevalent research designs, and the emergence of strength-based and healing approaches to address racism's impact. There were general racial and ethnic differences in trends, with research on various People of Color groups focused on the harmful effects of racism and research on White populations focused on Whiteness and level of awareness of racism. We conclude with recommendations to enhance the content and methodological rigor of future research while also suggesting policy implications to support advancements in this critical area of study. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The iBelong Scale: Construction and validation of a measure of racial-ethnic-cultural belonging.

The purpose of this study was to develop a measure of racial-ethnic-cultural (REC) belonging for Black, Indigenous, and other people of color (BIPOC). The iBelong Scale was designed to assess the multidimensional components of REC belonging across diverse BIPOC groups. The scale was constructed based on a grounded conceptual framework of REC belonging, and the initial pool of items received feedback from community members and content experts. Validation of the iBelong Scale comprised data from 808 BIPOC participants collected across three interrelated studies for the purposes of initial validation, construct validity, and test-retest reliability. In Study 1, an exploratory factor analysis yielded a 25-item scale with five factors: (a) Home, (b) Connection, (c) Authenticity, (d) REC Thriving, and (e) Self-Definition. Results from Study 2's confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the five-factor model was an acceptable fit of the data and the best fit among competing models. Measurement invariance was assessed, and results indicated that the iBelong Scale measures REC belonging similarly across differing BIPOC groups. The iBelong Scale was related to a range of measures in theoretically expected ways, including positive associations with general belonging, racial/ethnic identity, and general well-being, and negative associations with loneliness and REC nonbelonging. Findings from Study 3 indicated the test-retest reliability of the iBelong Scale over a 2-week period. Limitations of the studies and implications for research and practice are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Construction and validation of the Racially Biased Reasoning Scale: A measure of beliefs about police interactions with people of color.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to develop and provide initial psychometric support for the Racially Biased Reasoning Scale-Police (RBias-Police). The vignette-based RBias-Police is designed to capture rigid racially biased beliefs. The items focus on police interactions with people of color as this is a particularly emotional-laden issue in the United States that signifies deeper racial and social intolerance. METHOD: Data from a combined sample of 1,156 participants were collected through Mechanical Turk for two interrelated studies. In the first study, we used matrix sampling and exploratory structural equation modeling to explore the factor structure of RBias-Police. In the second study, we conducted confirmatory factor analysis and explored the construct validity with theoretically relevant concepts. RESULTS: In Study 1, we found that 10 items with three factors solution captured the data across each of the six vignettes: (a) Minimization of Racism, (b) Target Apathy, and (c) Target Blaming. In Study 2, findings from confirmatory factor analysis supported that the three-factor model was a good fit to the data. The RBias-Police factors were positively related to color-blind racial ideology and the general belief in a just world in theoretically expected ways. CONCLUSIONS: Across two studies, our findings provide initial psychometric support for the RBias-Police; this new measure captures both affective and cognitive dimensions of biased reasoning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Reclaiming the past and transforming our future: Introduction to the special issue on foundational contributions of Black scholars in psychology.

The contributions of Black scholars to psychology have been erased or marginalized within mainstream, U.S.-centered psychology. As such, psychologists and trainees have little exposure to strengths-based theories and schools of thought that center and humanize the experiences of people of African descent. This special issue intervenes on anti-Black racism at the epistemic level by curating a review of foundational contributions by diverse Black scholars in psychology and related fields. The special issue is organized around five integrative and overlapping themes: (a) Black scholars who have written on topics related to race, racism, and racial identity; (b) schools of thought that embody decolonial, liberation, and African psychologies and the scholars writing within these traditions; (c) scholars who have created new theories and approaches to conceptualizing the mental health of Black children, youth, and families; (d) Black scholars adopting an intersectional lens to research and practice; and (e) Black scholars creating spaces within existing organizations to theorize about and research the experiences of people of African descent. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

"We can create a better world for ourselves": Radical hope in communities of color.

The negative impact of racism on Black, Indigenous, and People of Color's (BIPOC's) mental and physical health is well-documented. Research supports the critical role of personal hope as a buffer against despair and adverse health outcomes among BIPOC. However, there is a dearth of empirical research exploring the experiences of BIPOC's sense of collective hope. This study aimed to help fill this gap in the literature by extending Mosley et al.'s (2020) multidimensional psychological framework of radical hope via a qualitative study. Radical hope includes a collective motivation of hope for BIPOC communities to work toward a more egalitarian future. In this study, focus groups and interviews were conducted with 29 BIPOC adults, with and without mental health training, to explore participants' perceptions of radical hope. Seven interrelated themes were identified. Two core components and four themes aligned with and extended Mosley et al.'s (2020) framework: Collective Orientation, Faith and Agency, Resisting Racism, Embracing Racial Pride, Envisioning Possibilities, and Meaning Making and Purpose. We also identified a new theme, Valuing Self. Implications for clinical practice and research are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Ignoring race and denying racism: A meta-analysis of the associations between colorblind racial ideology, anti-Blackness, and other variables antithetical to racial justice.

One critical role counseling psychologists can play in dismantling anti-Blackness and eradicating systemic racism is to build on the field's strength in understanding individual-level processes (i.e., systems are created and maintained by individual actors). Drawing on antiracism scholarship, we aimed to better understand how colorblind racial ideology (CBRI), or the denial and minimization of race and racism, may serve as a barrier to engaging in antiracist praxis. Specifically, we conducted a meta-analysis to determine if color evasion (ignoring race) and power evasion (denying structural racism) CBRI were differentially associated with anti-Blackness and processes linked to antiracism. Findings based on 375 effects drawn from 83 studies with more than 25,000 individuals suggest different effects based on CBRI type. As hypothesized, we found that power evasion CBRI was related to increased endorsement of anti-Black prejudice (r = .33) and legitimizing ideologies (r = .24), and negatively associated with a range of other variables associated with antiracism, including social justice behaviors (r = -.31), multicultural practice competencies (r = -.16), diversity openness (r = -.28), and racial/ethnocultural empathy (r = -.35). Consistent with theory, color evasion CBRI was related to increased diversity openness (r = .12). We discuss limitations of our study, as well as outline future directions for research and practice to focus on the role of CBRI in sustaining and perpetuating anti-Blackness and systemic racism. Thus, this meta-analysis has implications for pushing the field of counseling psychology to build the bridge between individual ideologies and creating structural change. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Radical healing in psychotherapy: Addressing the wounds of racism-related stress and trauma.

There is a large body of research on the importance of addressing culture in psychotherapy. However, less is known about providing critically conscious and racially affirmative therapy for Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) clients in the context of ongoing systemic racism and racism-related stress and trauma, especially in the sociopolitical context of the United States. This article introduces and illustrates the Keeping Radical Healing in Mind Therapeutic Approach using a sample therapy session. To contextualize the therapeutic approach, we outline the need for antiracist and liberatory approaches to psychotherapy and describe in detail the Psychology of Radical Healing theoretical framework. The clinical stance that underpins the Keeping Radical Healing in Mind Therapeutic Approach includes helping clients develop, internalize, and nurture (a) Critical Consciousness, (b) Cultural Authenticity and Self-Knowledge, (c) Radical Hope and Envisioning Possibilities, (d) Collectivism, and (e) Strength and Resistance. To better meet the needs of BIPOC clients, the stance requires clinicians to develop their critical consciousness of systemic racism and interlocking forms of oppression. The clinical case of "Brenda," a Black woman experiencing the effects of racism-related stress while raising a young Black boy, is presented. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Resistance and restoration: Healing research methodologies for the global majority.

Objectives: Recently, research has focused both on the influence of institutional racism and how the Global Majority, which includes Black, Indigenous and People of Color, heal from processes related to racial and other forms of oppression. We propose a framework of healing research methodologies that is situated within emerging diversity science trends. This framework specifically is designed to apply diversity science principles to develop research that is culturally relevant and can help explain intragroup processes related to healing from institutional racism. Methods: Drawing from the diversity science, liberation and critical research methodologies, and psychological healing practices literature, we propose a healing research methodologies framework. Results: The healing research methodologies framework consists of six critical components: maintains social justice ethics, adopts liberation methodologies, implements healing methods, embraces interdisciplinary approaches, catalyzes action, and promotes community accessibility. Conclusions: We offer recommendations to guide future diversity science healing research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Attachment research and anti-racism: learning from Black and Brown scholars.

Preliminary evidence suggests that people and scholars of African and/or Latin American and Caribbean origin are often under-represented in mainstream attachment scholarship. In this commentary, we highlight the difficulty of conducting attachment theory research outside of the United States, particularly in Latin American countries. We reflect on the contributions by the authors of this special issue . We also identify (a) ways in which to center the experiences of Black and Brown people and scholars to push the field toward antiracism, and (b) the challenges of attachment theory and research in becoming anti-racist by considering the structural nature of racism.

The public psychology for liberation training model: A call to transform the discipline.

Written against the backdrop of the 2020 twin pandemics of a global health crisis and greater national awareness of structural racism, this article issues a call for psychology to invest in training all psychologists to respond to the social ills of racial and other forms of oppression. We introduce a public psychology for liberation (PPL) training model. Essentially, the model reflects a science, a pedagogical commitment, and practice of, by, and with the people who have been most marginalized in society. The PPL consists of five foundational domains or cross-cutting areas of expertise (e.g., facilitate human relationships; generate reciprocal knowledge and translation) and 10 interrelated lifelong practices (e.g., cultural humility; care and compassion) that foster healing and equity. The model centers the perspectives of the Global Majority, focuses on radical healing and equity, and emphasizes a developmental, culturally grounded, strengths-based approach to training. Various training initiatives consistent with a public psychology for liberation approach are presented. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Racial trauma: Theory, research, and healing: Introduction to the special issue.

Racial trauma, a form of race-based stress, refers to People of Color and Indigenous individuals' (POCI) reactions to dangerous events and real or perceived experiences of racial discrimination. Such experiences may include threats of harm and injury, humiliating and shaming events, and witnessing racial discrimination toward other POCI. Although similar to posttraumatic stress disorder, racial trauma is unique in that it involves ongoing individual and collective injuries due to exposure and reexposure to race-based stress. The articles in this special issue introduce new conceptual approaches, research, and healing models to challenge racial trauma. The authors encourage psychologists to develop culturally informed healing modalities and methodologically sophisticated research and urge the inclusion of public policy interventions in the area of racial trauma. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

What Is Nonconsensual Sex? Young Women Identify Sources of Coerced Sex.

Extending the American Psychological Association (APA) report on the Sexualization of Girls, this study investigated how young women identified sources of coerced sex. Findings from three focus groups with 25 Black and White adolescent women uncovered a perceived overarching force that "pushed" them to have sex before they felt ready. Participants identified four domains of coerced sex: (a) Sociocultural Context, (b) Internalized Sexual Scripts, (c) Partner Manipulation of Sexual Scripts, and (d) Developmental Status. Coerced sex was a complex system consisting of cultural, peer, and internal messages that create pressures to engage in sexual activities. Future implications for research and practice are presented.

Racial awakening: Epiphanies and encounters in Black racial identity.

OBJECTIVE: The current study was guided by Nigrescence theory (Cross, 1971, 1991) and explored the phenomenon of racial awakening or epiphanic experiences of Black adults. We were interested in describing the context and perceived outcomes of the epiphanies in participants' understanding of what it means to be Black. METHOD: Sixty-four adults participated in racial life narrative interviews. There was an equivalent number of men and women who participated from 4 sites: Australia, Bermuda, South Africa, and the United States. RESULTS: Findings from dimensional analysis highlight the turning points, triggers, and awakening or epiphanies in one's racial identity. Specifically, in this study racial awakening or increased awareness about the meaning of being Black was spurred by personal experiences and/or observations, education, and activism. Participants discussed increased racial activism, racial pride, and possible-selves after the process of racial awakening and continued exploration. Only 1 participant described disappointment and despair after a racial epiphany. CONCLUSIONS: Findings extend our understanding of the process in which people develop a sense of racial consciousness. Insights may help inform future researchers in terms of identifying racial awakening prototypic stories and counselors in terms of providing opportunities to assist individuals in the meaning-making process. (PsycINFO Database Record

Construction and initial validation of the Gendered Racial Microaggressions Scale for Black women.

The purpose of this study was to develop a measure of gendered racial microaggressions (i.e., subtle and everyday verbal, behavioral, and environmental expressions of oppression based on the intersection of one's race and gender) experienced by Black women by applying an intersectionality framework to Essed's (1991) theory of gendered racism and Sue, Capodilupo, et al.'s (2007) model of racial microaggressions. The Gendered Racial Microaggressions Scale (GRMS), was developed to assess both frequency and stress appraisal of microaggressions, in 2 separate studies. After the initial pool of GRMS items was developed, we received input from a community-based focus group of Black women and an expert panel. In Study 1, an exploratory factor analysis using a sample of 259 Black women resulted in a multidimensional scale with 4 factors as follows: (a) Assumptions of Beauty and Sexual Objectification, (b) Silenced and Marginalized, (c) Strong Black Woman Stereotype, and (d) Angry Black Woman Stereotype. In Study 2, results of confirmatory factor analyses using an independent sample of 210 Black women suggested that the 4-factor model was a good fit of the data for both the frequency and stress appraisal scales. Supporting construct validity, the GRMS was positively related to the Racial and Ethnic Microaggressions Scale (Nadal, 2011) and the Schedule of Sexist Events (Klonoff & Landrine, 1995). In addition, the GRMS was significantly related to psychological distress, such that greater perceived gendered racial microaggressions were related to greater levels of reported psychological distress. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

Dimensions of belonging as an aspect of racial-ethnic-cultural identity: an exploration of indigenous Australians.

Sense of belonging is a key aspect of racial and ethnic identity. Interestingly, there is little exploration of the multiple characteristics of belongingness within the racial and ethnic identity literature. Through individual interviews and a focus group, we explored the sense of racial-ethnic-cultural (REC) belonging among 19 self-identified Black Indigenous Australians (Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders). Using dimensional analysis, we uncovered 5 core interrelated dimensions of REC belonging: History/Memory, Place, and Peoplehood; Sense of Community; Acceptance and Pride; Shared Language and Culture; and Interconnections. We also uncovered 3 main barriers undermining participants' sense of REC belonging: phenotype, social identity, and history of colonization.

Changes in White college students' color-blind racial ideology over 4 years: do diversity experiences make a difference?

In this longitudinal study, we explored how White students' (N = 857) color-blind racial ideology (CBRI; i.e., beliefs that serve to deny, minimize, and/or distort the existence of racism) changed over time and the factors associated with these patterns of change. Specifically, we investigated whether gender, diversity attitudes (i.e., openness to diversity and interest in social issues), and college diversity experiences (i.e., diversity-related courses/activities and close interracial friendships) predicted patterns of CBRI change. Findings indicated that gender and diversity attitudes were related to initial levels of CBRI, such that women and students who were more open to diversity issues at the beginning of college were more likely to report lower levels of CBRI; gender was also related to a greater decrease in CBRI changes over the college experience. Furthermore, college diversity experiences predicted changes in CBRI over time, such that students who completed a greater number of diversity courses and activities and those who had a greater number of close Black friends showed a significantly greater decrease in CBRI over their 4 years in college; interestingly, students who reported having no Latino friends compared with having some close Latino friends showed a significantly greater decrease in CBRI over time.

Color-blind racial ideology: theory, training, and measurement implications in psychology.

Synthesizing the interdisciplinary literature, we characterize color-blind racial ideology (CBRI) as consisting of two interrelated domains: color-evasion (i.e., denial of racial differences by emphasizing sameness) and power-evasion (i.e., denial of racism by emphasizing equal opportunities). Mounting empirical data suggest that the color-evasion dimension is ineffective and in fact promotes interracial tension and potential inequality. CBRI may be conceived as an ultramodern or contemporary form of racism and a legitimizing ideology used to justify the racial status quo. Four types of CBRI are described: denial of (a) race, (b) blatant racial issues, (c) institutional racism, and (d) White privilege. We discuss empirical findings suggesting a relationship between CBRI and increased racial prejudice, racial anger, and racial fear. Implications for education, training, and research are provided.