The role of nitric oxide in memory is modulated by diurnal time.

Nitric oxide (NO) is thought to play an important neuromodulatory role in the olfactory system. This modulation has been suggested to be particularly important for olfactory learning and memory in the antennal lobe (the primary olfactory network in invertebrates). We are using the hawkmoth, Manduca sexta, to further investigate the role of NO in olfactory memory. Recent findings suggest that NO affects short-term memory traces and that NO concentration fluctuates with the light cycle. This gives rise to the hypothesis that NO may be involved in the connection between memory and circadian rhythms. In this study, we explore the role of diurnal time and NO in memory by altering the time of day when associative-olfactory conditioning is performed. We find a strong effect of NO on short-term memory, and two surprising effects of diurnal time. We find that (1) at certain time points, NO affects longer traces of memory in addition to short-term memory; and (2) when conditioning is performed close to the light cycle switches-both from light to dark and dark to light-NO does not significantly affect memory at all. These findings suggest an intriguing functional role for NO in olfactory conditioning that is modulated as a function of diurnal time.

A characterization of the Manduca sexta serotonin receptors in the context of olfactory neuromodulation.

Neuromodulation, the alteration of individual neuron response properties, has dramatic consequences for neural network function and is a phenomenon observed across all brain regions and taxa. However, the mechanisms underlying neuromodulation are made complex by the diversity of neuromodulatory receptors expressed within a neural network. In this study we begin to examine the receptor basis for serotonergic neuromodulation in the antennal lobe of Manduca sexta. To this end we cloned all four known insect serotonin receptor types from Manduca (the Ms5HTRs). We used phylogenetic analyses to classify the Ms5HTRs and to establish their relationships to other insect serotonin receptors, other insect amine receptors and the vertebrate serotonin receptors. Pharmacological assays demonstrated that each Ms5HTR was selective for serotonin over other endogenous amines and that serotonin had a similar potency at all four Ms5HTRs. The pharmacological assays also identified several agonists and antagonists of the different Ms5HTRs. Finally, we found that the Ms5HT1A receptor was expressed in a subpopulation of GABAergic local interneurons suggesting that the Ms5HTRs are likely expressed heterogeneously within the antennal lobe based on functional neuronal subtype.

Nitric oxide affects short-term olfactory memory in the antennal lobe of Manduca sexta.

Nitric oxide (NO) is thought to play an important neuromodulatory role in olfaction. We are using the hawkmoth Manduca sexta to investigate the function of NO signaling in the antennal lobe (AL; the primary olfactory network in invertebrates). We have found previously that NO is present at baseline levels, dramatically increases in response to odor stimulation, and alters the electrophysiology of AL neurons. It is unclear, however, how these effects contribute to common features of olfactory systems such as olfactory learning and memory, odor detection and odor discrimination. In this study, we used chemical detection and a behavioral approach to further examine the function of NO in the AL. We found that basal levels of NO fluctuate with the daily light cycle, being higher during the nocturnal active period. NO also appears to be necessary for short-term olfactory memory. NO does not appear to affect odor detection, odor discrimination between dissimilar odorants, or learning acquisition. These findings suggest a modulatory role for NO in the timing of olfactory-guided behaviors.

Nitric oxide has differential effects on currents in different subsets of Manduca sexta antennal lobe neurons.

Nitric oxide has been shown to regulate many biological systems including olfaction. In the moth olfactory system nitric oxide is produced in the antennal lobe in response to odor stimulation and has complex effects on the activity of both projection neurons and local interneurons. To examine the cell autonomous effects of nitric oxide on these cells, we used patch-clamp recording in conjunction with pharmacological manipulation of nitric oxide to test the hypothesis that nitric oxide differentially regulates the channel properties of these different antennal lobe neuron subsets. We found that nitric oxide caused increasing inward currents in a subset of projection neurons while the effects on local neurons were variable but consistent within identifiable morphological subtypes.

Olfactory modulation by dopamine in the context of aversive learning.

The need to detect and process sensory cues varies in different behavioral contexts. Plasticity in sensory coding can be achieved by the context-specific release of neuromodulators in restricted brain areas. The context of aversion triggers the release of dopamine in the insect brain, yet the effects of dopamine on sensory coding are unknown. In this study, we characterize the morphology of dopaminergic neurons that innervate each of the antennal lobes (ALs; the first synaptic neuropils of the olfactory system) of the moth Manduca sexta and demonstrate with electrophysiology that dopamine enhances odor-evoked responses of the majority of AL neurons while reducing the responses of a small minority. Because dopamine release in higher brain areas mediates aversive learning we developed a naturalistic, ecologically inspired aversive learning paradigm in which an innately appetitive host plant floral odor is paired with a mimic of the aversive nectar of herbivorized host plants. This pairing resulted in a decrease in feeding behavior that was blocked when dopamine receptor antagonists were injected directly into the ALs. These results suggest that a transient dopaminergic enhancement of sensory output from the AL contributes to the formation of aversive memories. We propose a model of olfactory modulation in which specific contexts trigger the release of different neuromodulators in the AL to increase olfactory output to downstream areas of processing.

The organization of the antennal lobe correlates not only with phylogenetic relationship, but also life history: a Basal hymenopteran as exemplar.

The structure of the brain is a consequence of selective pressures and the ancestral brain structures modified by those pressures. The Hymenoptera are one of the most behaviorally complex insect orders, and the olfactory system of honeybees (one of the most derived members) has been extensively studied. To understand the context in which the olfactory system of the Hymenoptera evolved, we performed a variety of immunocytochemical and anatomical labeling techniques on the antennal lobes (ALs) of one of its most primitive members, the sawflies, to provide a comparison between the honeybee and other insect model species. The olfactory receptor neurons project from the antennae to fill the entire glomerular volume but do not form distinct tracts as in the honeybee. Labeling of projection neurons revealed 5 output tracts similar to those in moths and immunolabeling for several transmitters revealed distinct populations of local interneurons and centrifugal neurons that were also similar to moths. There were, however, no histaminergic or dopaminergic AL neurons. The similarities between sawflies and moths suggest that along with the great radiation and increased complexity of behavioral repertoire of the Hymenoptera, there were extensive modifications of AL structure.

Direct and glia-mediated effects of GABA on development of central olfactory neurons.

Previously studied for its role in processing olfactory information in the antennal lobe, GABA also may shape development of the olfactory pathway, acting either through or on glial cells. Early in development, the dendrites of GABAergic neurons extend to the glial border that surrounds the nascent olfactory lobe neuropil. These neuropil glia express both GABAA and GABAB receptors, about half of the glia in acute cultures responded to GABA with small outward currents, and about a third responded with small transient increases in intracellular calcium. The neuronal classes that express GABA in vivo, the local interneurons and a subset of projection neurons, also do so in culture. Exposure to GABA in culture increased the size and complexity of local interneurons, but had no effect on glial morphology. The presence of glia alone did not affect neuronal morphology, but in the presence of both glia and GABA, the growth-enhancing effects of GABA on cultured antennal lobe neurons were eliminated. Contact between the glial cells and the neurons was not necessary. Operating in vivo, these antagonistic effects, one direct and one glia mediated, could help to sculpt the densely branched, tufted arbors that are characteristic of neurons innervating olfactory glomeruli.

Histamine-immunoreactive local neurons in the antennal lobes of the hymenoptera.

Neural networks receive input that is transformed before being sent as output to higher centers of processing. These transformations are often mediated by local interneurons (LNs) that influence output based on activity across the network. In primary olfactory centers, the LNs that mediate these lateral interactions are extremely diverse. For instance, the antennal lobes (ALs) of bumblebees possess both gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)- and histamine-immunoreactive (HA-ir) LNs, and both are neurotransmitters associated with fast forms of inhibition. Although the GABAergic network of the AL has been extensively studied, we sought to examine the anatomical features of the HA-ir LNs in relation to the other cellular elements of the bumblebee AL. As a population, HA-ir LNs densely innervate the glomerular core and sparsely arborize in the outer glomerular rind, overlapping with the terminals of olfactory receptor neurons. Individual fills of HA-ir LNs revealed heavy arborization of the outer ring of a single "principal" glomerulus and sparse arborization in the core of other glomeruli. In contrast, projection neurons and GABA-immunoreactive LNs project throughout the glomerular volume. To provide insight into the selective pressures that resulted in the evolution of HA-ir LNs, we determined the phylogenetic distribution of HA-ir LNs in the AL. HA-ir LNs were present in all but the most basal hymenopteran examined, although there were significant morphological differences between major groups within the Hymenoptera. The ALs of other insect taxa examined lacked HA-ir LNs, suggesting that this population of LNs arose within the Hymenoptera and underwent extensive morphological modification.

Serotonin modulates olfactory processing in the antennal lobe of Drosophila.

Sensory systems must be able to extract features of environmental cues within the context of the different physiological states of the organism and often temper their activity in a state-dependent manner via the process of neuromodulation. We examined the effects of the neuromodulator serotonin on a well-characterized sensory circuit, the antennal lobe of Drosophila melanogaster, using two-photon microscopy and the genetically expressed calcium indicator, G-CaMP. Serotonin enhances sensitivity of the antennal lobe output projection neurons in an odor-specific manner. For odorants that sparsely activate the antennal lobe, serotonin enhances projection neuron responses and causes an offset of the projection neuron tuning curve, most likely by increasing projection neuron sensitivity. However, for an odorant that evokes a broad activation pattern, serotonin enhances projection neuron responses in some, but not all, glomeruli. Further, serotonin enhances the responses of inhibitory local interneurons, resulting in a reduction of neurotransmitter release from the olfactory sensory neurons via GABA(B) receptor-dependent presynaptic inhibition, which may be a mechanism underlying the odorant-specific modulation of projection neuron responses. Our data suggest that the complexity of serotonin modulation in the antennal lobe accommodates coding stability in a glomerular pattern and flexible projection neuron sensitivity under different physiological conditions.

Allostery in recombinant soluble guanylyl cyclase from Manduca sexta.

Soluble guanylyl/guanylate cyclase (sGC), the primary biological receptor for nitric oxide, is required for proper development and health in all animals. We have expressed heterodimeric full-length and N-terminal fragments of Manduca sexta sGC in Escherichia coli, the first time this has been accomplished for any sGC, and have performed the first functional analyses of an insect sGC. Manduca sGC behaves much like its mammalian counterparts, displaying a 170-fold stimulation by NO and sensitivity to compound YC-1. YC-1 reduces the NO and CO off-rates for the approximately 100-kDa N-terminal heterodimeric fragment and increases the CO affinity by approximately 50-fold to 1.7 microm. Binding of NO leads to a transient six-coordinate intermediate, followed by release of the proximal histidine to yield a five-coordinate nitrosyl complex (k(6-5) = 12.8 s(-1)). The conversion rate is insensitive to nucleotides, YC-1, and changes in NO concentration up to approximately 30 microm. NO release is biphasic in the absence of YC-1 (k(off1) = 0.10 s(-1) and k(off2) = 0.0015 s(-1)); binding of YC-1 eliminates the fast phase but has little effect on the slower phase. Our data are consistent with a model for allosteric activation in which sGC undergoes a simple switch between two conformations, with an open or a closed heme pocket, integrating the influence of numerous effectors to give the final catalytic rate. Importantly, YC-1 binding occurs in the N-terminal two-thirds of the protein. Homology modeling and mutagenesis experiments suggest the presence of an H-NOX domain in the alpha subunit with importance for heme binding.

Inhibition of nitric oxide and soluble guanylyl cyclase signaling affects olfactory neuron activity in the moth, Manduca sexta.

Nitric oxide is emerging as an important modulator of many physiological processes including olfaction, yet the function of this gas in the processing of olfactory information remains poorly understood. In the antennal lobe of the moth, Manduca sexta, nitric oxide is produced in response to odor stimulation, and many interneurons express soluble guanylyl cyclase, a well-characterized nitric oxide target. We used intracellular recording and staining coupled with pharmacological manipulation of nitric oxide and soluble guanylyl cyclase to test the hypothesis that nitric oxide modulates odor responsiveness in olfactory interneurons through soluble guanylyl cyclase-dependent pathways. Nitric oxide synthase inhibition resulted in pronounced effects on the resting level of firing and the responses to odor stimulation in most interneurons. Effects ranged from bursting to strong attenuation of activity and were often accompanied by membrane depolarization coupled with a change in input resistance. Blocking nitric oxide activation of soluble guanylyl cyclase signaling mimicked the effects of nitric oxide synthase inhibitors in a subset of olfactory neurons, while other cells were differentially affected by this treatment. Together, these results suggest that nitric oxide is required for proper olfactory function, and likely acts through soluble guanylyl cyclase-dependent and -independent mechanisms in different subsets of neurons.

Eph receptor and ephrin signaling in developing and adult brain of the honeybee (Apis mellifera).

Roles for Eph receptor tyrosine kinase and ephrin signaling in vertebrate brain development are well established. Their involvement in the modulation of mammalian synaptic structure and physiology is also emerging. However, less is known of their effects on brain development and their function in adult invertebrate nervous systems. Here, we report on the characterization of Eph receptor and ephrin orthologs in the honeybee, Apis mellifera (Am), and their role in learning and memory. In situ hybridization for mRNA expression showed a uniform distribution of expression of both genes across the developing pupal and adult brain. However, in situ labeling with Fc fusion proteins indicated that the AmEphR and Amephrin proteins were differentially localized to cell body regions in the mushroom bodies and the developing neuropiles of the antennal and optic lobes. In adults, AmEphR protein was localized to regions of synaptic contacts in optic lobes, in the glomeruli of antennal lobes, and in the medial lobe of the mushroom body. The latter two regions are involved in olfactory learning and memory in the honeybee. Injections of EphR-Fc and ephrin-Fc proteins into the brains of adult bees, 1 h before olfactory conditioning of the proboscis extension reflex, significantly reduced memory 24 h later. Experimental amnesia in the group injected with ephrin-Fc was apparent 1 h post-training. Experimental amnesia was also induced by post-training injections with ephrin-Fc suggesting a role in recall. This is the first demonstration that Eph molecules function to regulate the formation of memory in insects.

Eph receptor expression defines midline boundaries for ephrin-positive migratory neurons in the enteric nervous system of Manduca sexta.

Eph receptor tyrosine kinases and their ephrin ligands participate in the control of neuronal growth and migration in a variety of contexts, but the mechanisms by which they guide neuronal motility are still incompletely understood. By using the enteric nervous system (ENS) of the tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta as a model system, we have explored whether Manduca ephrin (MsEphrin; a GPI-linked ligand) and its Eph receptor (MsEph) might regulate the migration and outgrowth of enteric neurons. During formation of the Manduca ENS, an identified set of approximately 300 neurons (EP cells) populates the enteric plexus of the midgut by migrating along a specific set of muscle bands forming on the gut, but the neurons strictly avoid adjacent interband regions. By determining the mRNA and protein expression patterns for MsEphrin and the MsEph receptor and by examining their endogenous binding patterns within the ENS, we have demonstrated that the ligand and its receptor are distributed in a complementary manner: MsEphrin is expressed exclusively by the migratory EP cells, whereas the MsEph receptor is expressed by midline interband cells that are normally inhibitory to migration. Notably, MsEphrin could be detected on the filopodial processes of the EP cells that extended up to but not across the midline cells expressing the MsEph receptor. These results suggest a model whereby MsEphrin-dependent signaling regulates the response of migrating neurons to a midline inhibitory boundary, defined by the expression of MsEph receptors in the developing ENS.

Distribution and characterization of nitric oxide synthase in the nervous system of Triatoma infestans (Insecta: Heteroptera).

The biochemical characterization of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and its distribution in the central nervous system (CNS) were studied in the heteropteran bug Triatoma infestans. NOS-like immunoreactivity was found in the brain, subesophageal ganglion, and thoracic ganglia by using immunocytochemistry. In the protocerebrum, NOS-immunoreactive (IR) somata were detected in the anterior, lateral, and posterior soma rinds. In the optic lobe, numerous immunostained somata were observed at the level of the first optic chiasma, around the lobula, and in the proximal optic lobe. In the deutocerebrum, NOS-IR perikarya were mainly observed in the lateral soma rind, surrounding the sensory glomeruli, and a few cell bodies were seen in association with the antennal mechanosensory and motor neuropil. No immunostaining could be detected in the antennal nerve. The subesophageal and prothoracic ganglia contained scattered immunostained cell bodies. NOS-IR somata were present in all the neuromeres of the posterior ganglion. Western blotting showed that a universal NOS antiserum recognized a band at 134 kDa, in agreement with the expected molecular weight of the protein. Analysis of the kinetics of nitric oxide production revealed a fully active enzyme in tissue samples of the CNS of T. infestans.

The cloning of one putative octopamine receptor and two putative serotonin receptors from the tobacco hawkmoth, Manduca sexta.

Serotonin and octopamine (OA) are biogenic amines that are active throughout the nervous systems of insects, affecting sensory processing, information coding and behavior. As an initial step towards understanding the modulatory roles of these amines in olfactory processing we cloned two putative serotonin receptors (Ms5HT1A and Ms5HT1B) and one putative OA (MsOAR) receptor from the moth Manduca sexta. Ms5HT1A and Ms5HT1B were both similar to 5HT1-type receptors but differed from each other in their N-terminus and 3rd cytoplasmic loop. Ms5HT1A was nearly identical to a serotonin receptor from Heliothis virescens and Ms5HT1B was almost identical to a serotonin receptor from Bombyx mori. The sequences for homologs of Ms5HT1A from B. mori and Ms5HT1B from H. virescens were also obtained, suggesting that the Lepidoptera likely have at least two serotonin receptors. The MsOAR shares significant sequence homology with pharmacologically characterized OA receptors, but less similarity to putative OA/tyramine receptors from the moths B. mori and H. virescens. Using the MsOAR sequence, fragments encoding putative OA receptors were obtained from B. mori and H. virescens, suggesting that MsOAR is the first OA receptor cloned from a lepidopteran.

Drosophila Eph receptor guides specific axon branches of mushroom body neurons.

The conserved Eph receptors and their Ephrin ligands regulate a number of developmental processes, including axon guidance. In contrast to the large vertebrate Eph/Ephrin family, Drosophila has a single Eph receptor and a single Ephrin ligand, both of which are expressed within the developing nervous system. Here, we show that Eph and Ephrin can act as a functional receptor-ligand pair in vivo. Surprisingly, and in contrast to previous results using RNA-interference techniques, embryos completely lacking Eph function show no obvious axon guidance defects. However, Eph/Ephrin signaling is required for proper development of the mushroom body. In wild type, mushroom body neurons bifurcate and extend distinct branches to different target areas. In Eph mutants, these neurons bifurcate normally, but in many cases the dorsal branch fails to project to its appropriate target area. Thus, Eph/Ephrin signaling acts to guide a subset of mushroom body branches to their correct synaptic targets.

Hippocalcin in the olfactory epithelium: a mediator of second messenger signaling.

Intracellular Ca2+ plays an important role in a variety of second messenger cascades. The function of Ca2+ is mediated, in part, by Ca2+-binding proteins such as calmodulin, calretinin, calbindin, neurocalcin, recoverin, and visinin-like proteins (VILIPs). These proteins are highly expressed in rat olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) and are localized to distinct intracellular regions. In the present study, we have identified another Ca2+-binding protein, hippocalcin, in the rat olfactory epithelium (OE). Olfactory/brain hippocalcin shows high sequence homology with hippocalcins expressed in mice and humans. Hippocalcin was predominantly localized to the olfactory cilia, the site of the initial events of olfactory signal transduction, and was found to regulate the activity of ciliary adenylate cyclases (ACs) and particulate guanylyl cyclases (GCs) in a Ca2+-dependent manner. These data indicate that hippocalcin is expressed in rat ORNs, and is likely to regulate second messenger cascades in a Ca2+-dependent manner.

Odorant-evoked nitric oxide signals in the antennal lobe of Manduca sexta.

The gaseous signaling molecule nitric oxide (NO) can affect the activities of neurons and neural networks in many different systems. The strong expression of NO synthase (NOS) in the primary synaptic neuropil (the antennal lobe in insects and the olfactory bulb in vertebrates) of the olfactory system of most organisms, and the unique spheroidal geometry of olfactory glomeruli in those neuropils, have led to suggestions that NO signaling is important for processing olfactory information. No direct evidence exists, however, that NO signals are produced in olfactory glomeruli. We investigated the production of NO in the antennal lobe of the moth, Manduca sexta, by using immunocytochemistry and real-time optical imaging with a NO-sensitive fluorescent marker, diaminofluorescein diacetate. We confirmed that NOS was expressed in the axons of olfactory receptor neurons projecting to all glomeruli. Soluble guanylyl cyclase, the best characterized target of NO, was found in a subset of postsynaptic antennal lobe neurons that included projection neurons, a small number of GABA-immunoreactive neurons, and a serotonin-immunoreactive neuron. We found that odorant stimulation evoked NO signals that were reproducible and spatially focused. Different odorants evoked spatially distinct patterns of NO production. Increased concentrations of pheromone and plant odorants caused increases in peak signal intensity. Increased concentrations of plant odorants also evoked a dramatic increase in signal area. The results of these experiments show clearly that odorant stimulation can evoke NO production in the olfactory system. The NO signals produced are likely to play an important role in processing olfactory information.

Copper/zinc superoxide dismutase-like immunoreactivity in the metamorphosing brain of the sphinx moth Manduca sexta.

Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD) is part of the defense mechanism that protects cells from being damaged by reactive oxygen species. During metamorphosis of the nervous system, neurons undergo various fates, which are all coupled to high metabolic activities, such as proliferation, differentiation, pathfinding, and synaptogenesis. We describe the pattern of SOD immunoreactivity of identified neurons and neuron groups in the brain of Manduca sexta from the late larva through metamorphosis into adult. We focused on neurons of the developing antennal lobes, the optic lobes, and the central brain. Our results indicate the transient expression of SOD during phases in which the neurons develop their final adult identities. Our data also suggest that the SOD immunoreactivity may be used as an indicator for the period in which developing neurons form their synapses. We also observed SOD immunoreactivity within nitric oxide-sensitive cells as characterized by immunolabeling against 3'5'-cyclic guanosine monophosphate and soluble guanylyl cyclase, a novel finding in insects.

Interaxonal Eph-ephrin signaling may mediate sorting of olfactory sensory axons in Manduca sexta.

We have investigated possible roles of the Eph family receptor tyrosine kinases and their ligand ephrins in the developing primary olfactory nerve pathway in the moth Manduca sexta. The Manduca homologs of the Eph receptor (MsEph) and ephrin ligand (MsEphrin) are most closely related to Drosophila Eph and ephrin, respectively. In situ labeling with Fc-fusion probes, in which IgG Fc was linked to the extracellular domain of MsEph (Eph-Fc) or MsEphrin (ephrin-Fc), reveals that both Eph receptors and ephrins are expressed on axons of olfactory receptor cells (ORCs) during their ingrowth to the primary center, the antennal lobe (AL). Interestingly, Eph receptors and ephrins are differentially distributed among identifiable glomeruli such that glomeruli with high receptor staining show little or no ligand staining, and vice versa, suggesting a complementary Eph-ephrin expression by subsets of ORC axons innervating a particular set of glomeruli. In contrast, neither Eph receptors nor ephrins are detectable in intrinsic components of the AL. In vitro, ephrin-Fc and Eph-Fc, when present homogeneously in the substratum, inhibit neurite outgrowth from olfactory epithelial explants. Moreover, in patterned substratum, neurites growing on the standard substratum turn or stop after encountering the test substratum containing ephrin-Fc. These in vitro observations indicate that MsEphrin can act as an inhibitor/repulsive cue for ORC axons. Based on results from in situ and in vitro experiments, we hypothesize that Eph receptors and ephrins mediate axon sorting and fasciculation through repulsive axon-axon interactions.