Risk factors affecting the feeding site predilection of ticks on cattle in Ghana.

Ticks are important disease vectors affecting animal health and causing substantial economic loss, especially in the tropics and subtropics. To examine the tick burden of cattle and associated risk factors for tick infestation, ticks were collected from 388 cattle within five regions in Ghana. Most of the cattle were males (50.3%) and generally older than 3 years (65%). Of the animals sampled, 2187 ticks were collected with a mean tick burden of 5.6 ticks per cattle, and the average tick burden on the udder/scrotum being significantly higher than in the anal region (Generalized Linear Mix Model [GLMM], p = 0.01197). The tick species identified were predominantly Amblyomma variegatum (42.6%) and Hyalomma rufipes (26.2%). High proportions of cattle examined were found to have A. variegatum infesting the udder/scrotum. Furthermore, H. rufipes infested mostly the anal region compared to other examined body parts (OR 14.8, 95% CI 8.6-25.4, p < 0.001). Using the GLMM, tick abundance was found to be significantly higher in cattle older than 3 years. The tick burden in the udder/scrotum was higher than that from the chest and leg/thigh of the cattle (GLMM, p < 0.05). The tick burden at the anal region was also significantly higher than the leg/thigh and chest. This study indicates that the preferred attachment sites of ticks on cattle are species-dependent and effective treatment with acaricides should take into consideration the udder/scrotum and anal regions as well as prioritizing older cattle.

Corrigendum: Decreased influenza activity during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana, 2020.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1290553.].

Antimicrobial use of patients with sexually transmitted infection symptoms prior to presentation at five health facilities in Southern Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Unregulated and inappropriate antimicrobial use are major contributors to the evolution of antimicrobial resistance worldwide. It is important to monitor and collect data on the use of antibiotics at health facilities and in the general population in order to support antimicrobial stewardship programs. METHODS: As part of a gonorrhea surveillance study that was conducted from June 2012 to Jan 2018, we administered a questionnaire to elicit information on the types of antimicrobials used by individuals to treat symptoms of a gonorrhea infection prior to presenting at five health facilities in Southern Ghana. RESULTS: Almost one-third (383/1,349; 28%) of study participants admitted taking one or more antimicrobial types before hospital presentation, while 138/383 (36%) of those who took antimicrobials could not remember what they ingested. A greater percentage of individuals who reported prior antimicrobial use before presentation at a health facility tested positive for gonorrhea by NAAT (30%), in contrast to 24% for those without prior treatment (p = 0.004). Penicillin and its derivatives, as well as ciprofloxacin and doxycycline, were the most used, while a few individuals reported taking drugs such as kanamycin and rifampin. Males were more likely than females to take an antimicrobial prior to attending a health center. CONCLUSION: In order to curb excessive and inappropriate antimicrobial use, antibiotics used by patients before presenting at hospitals ought to be investigated by healthcare providers. It is recommended that health professionals receive continuing education on the consequences of unregulated antimicrobial use.

Coinfection of Malaria and Bacterial Pathogens among Acute Febrile Patients in Selected Clinics in Ghana.

Malaria remains the leading cause of acute febrile illness (AFI) in Africa despite successful control measures and programs. Acute febrile illnesses can be misdiagnosed as malaria as a result of the overlapping spectrum of nonspecific symptoms or may not be pursued because of limited diagnostic capabilities. This study investigated potential etiologies of AFIs in Ghana and determined the relationship between coinfection between malaria and Q fever, leptospirosis, and culturable bacteria in febrile patients. Participants were enrolled between July 2015 and December 2019 from four Ghanaian military treatment facilities. Of the 399 febrile participants, 222 (55.6%) males and 177 (44.6%) females were enrolled. Malaria was diagnosed in 275 (68.9%) participants. Malaria coinfection occurred with leptospirosis, Q fever, and blood-cultured bacteria in 11/206 (5.3%), 24/206 (11.7%), and 6/164 (3.7%) participants, respectively. Among the 124 malaria-negative samples, the positivity rates were 4.1% (3/74), 8.1% (6/74), and 3.6% (2/56) for leptospirosis, Q fever, and bacterial pathogens isolated from blood culture, respectively. The majority of documented clinical signs and symptoms were not significantly associated with specific diseases. Approximately 10% of malaria-positive participants also had evidence suggesting the presence of a bacterial coinfection. Therefore, even in the case of a positive malaria test, other pathogens contributing to febrile illness should be considered. Understanding the frequency of malaria coinfection and other etiological agents responsible for AFIs will improve diagnosis and treatment and better inform public health knowledge gaps in Ghana.

Decreased influenza activity during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana, 2020.

Introduction: The COVID-19 pandemic had a significant effect on influenza activity globally. In this study, we analyzed trends of influenza activity in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study using active prospective influenza surveillance data from 29 sentinel sites. At the sentinel sites, we enrolled patients presenting with symptoms based on the WHO case definition for influenza-like illness (ILI) and severe acute respiratory illness (SARI). Oro and nasopharyngeal swabs were collected from patients and tested for the presence of influenza viruses using specific primers and probes described by the US-CDC. The percentage of positivity for influenza between 2017-2019 and 2021 was compared to 2020. Using the test for proportions in STATA 17.0 we estimated the difference in influenza activities between two periods. Results and discussion: Influenza activity occurred in a single wave during the 2020 surveillance season into 2021, September 28 2020-March 7 2021 (week 40, 2020-week 9, 2021). Influenza activity in 2020 was significantly lower compared to previous years (2017- 2019, 2021). Influenza A (H3) was more commonly detected during the early part of the year (December 30, 2019-March 8, 2020), while influenza B Victoria was more commonly detected toward the end of the year (September 28-December 28). In Ghana, adherence to the community mitigation strategies introduced to reduce transmission of SARS-CoV-2, which affected the transmission of other infectious diseases, may have also impacted the transmission of influenza. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study in Ghana to describe the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on influenza activity. The continuation and strict adherence to the non-pharmaceutical interventions at the community level can help reduce influenza transmission in subsequent seasons.

Causes of death and post-mortem testing for SARS-CoV-2 in a tertiary hospital during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana.

Background: Causes of death during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic ranhttp://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.4102/ajlm.v11i1.1766=pdf&date_stamp=2022-11-23ge from direct consequences of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection to deaths unrelated to SARS-CoV-2. Another feature of the pandemic is the post-mortem testing for SARS-CoV-2. Understanding these aspects of COVID-19 are essential in planning and limiting the impact of SARS-CoV-2 virus on healthcare systems. Objective: This study investigated the underlying causes of death and the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in bodies received at the 37 Military Hospital, Accra, Ghana, during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: The study was conducted from 4-27 May 2020. Deceased patients that met the inclusion criteria were prospectively selected during the expanded surveillance period for SARS-CoV-2 testing, autopsy and determination of underlying and immediate cause of death. Results: A total of 161 deceased patients were analysed with 53 autopsies. The overall positive test rate for SARS-CoV-2 was 14.9% (24/161 patients), with a positive rate of 5.0% (8/161 patients) for nasopharyngeal samples and 30.2% (16/161 patients) for bronchopulmonary samples. The underlying causes of death were not related to SARS-CoV-2 infection in 85.1% (137/161) of patients, SARS-CoV-2-associated 12.4% (20/161) and SARS-CoV-2-induced in 2.5% (4/161). Cardiovascular complications formed the most common cause of death in patients with or without SARS-CoV-2. Conclusion: There was a high positive rate of SARS-CoV-2 in post-mortem cases. However, most deaths were not caused by SARS-CoV-2 but by cardiovascular complications. The high rate of bronchopulmonary positive results for SARS-CoV-2 requires that autopsies be done in suspicious cases with negative nasopharyngeal sampling.

Molecular characterization of haemagglutinin genes of influenza B viruses circulating in Ghana during 2016 and 2017.

Recent reports of haemagglutinin antigen (HA) mismatch between vaccine composition strains and circulating strains, have led to renewed interest in influenza B viruses. Additionally, there are concerns about resistance to neuraminidase inhibitors in new influenza B isolates. To assess the potential impact in Ghana, we characterized the lineages of influenza B viruses that circulated in Ghana between 2016 and 2017 from different regions of the country: Southern, Northern and Central Ghana. Eight representative specimens from the three regions that were positive for influenza B virus by real-time RT-PCR were sequenced and compared to reference genomes from each lineage. A total of eleven amino acids substitutions were detected in the B/Victoria lineage and six in the B/Yamagata lineage. The strains of influenza B viruses were closely related to influenza B/Brisbane/60/2008 and influenza B/Phuket/3073/2013 for the Victoria and Yamagata lineages, respectively. Three main amino acid substitutions (P31S, I117V and R151K) were found in B/Victoria lineages circulating between 2016 and 2017, while one strain of B/Victoria possessed a unique glycosylation site at amino acid position 51 in the HA2 subunit. Two main substitutions (L172Q and M251V) were detected in the HA gene of the B/Yamagata lineage. The U.S. CDC recently reported a deletion sub-group in influenza B virus, but this was not identified among the Ghanaian specimens. Close monitoring of the patterns of influenza B evolution is necessary for the efficient selection of representative viruses for the design and formulation of effective influenza vaccines.

Phylogenetic and genetic characterization of influenza A H9N2 viruses isolated from backyard poultry in selected farms in Ghana.

INTRODUCTION: Avian influenza viruses (AIV) cause significant economic losses to poultry farmers worldwide. These viruses have the ability to spread rapidly, infect entire poultry flocks, and can pose a threat to human health. The National Influenza Centre (NIC) at the Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research in collaboration with the Ghana Armed forces (GAF) and the U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit No. 3, Ghana Detachment (NAMRU-3) performs biannual surveillance for influenza viruses among poultry at military barracks throughout Ghana. This study presents poultry surveillance data from the years 2017 to 2019. METHODOLOGY: Tracheal and cloacal swabs from sick and healthy poultry were collected from the backyards of GAF personnel living quarters and transported at 4°C to the NIC. Viral ribonucleic acid (RNA) was isolated and analyzed for the presence of influenza viruses using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays. Viral nucleic acids extracted from influenza A-positive specimens were sequenced using universal influenza A-specific primers. RESULTS: Influenza A H9N2 virus was detected in 11 avian species out of 2000 samples tested. Phylogenetic analysis of viral haemagglutinin (HA) protein confirms the possibility of importation of viruses from North Africa and Burkina Faso. Although the detected viruses possess molecular markers of virulence and mammalian host adaptation, the HA cleavage site anlaysis confirmed low pathogenicity of the viruses. CONCLUSIONS: These findings confirm the ongoing spread of H9 viruses among poultry in Ghana. Poultry farmers need to be vigilant for sick birds and take the appropriate public health steps to limit the spread to other animals and spillover to humans.

Epidemiology of influenza in Ghana, 2011 to 2019.

Influenza virus is an important contributor to acute respiratory illnesses and is estimated to cause up to 650,000 respiratory deaths each year. Ghana recorded influenza viruses as far back as 1918 when the Spanish influenza pandemic led to the death of >100,000 people in a population of 4 million at the time. An outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) among poultry in Ghana in 2007, led to the establishment of virological surveillance for influenza-like illness (ILI) by the Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR). This surveillance system, supported by the U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit-No. 3 (NAMRU-3) and the Ghana Health Service (GHS), monitors circulating influenza strains and activity to better understand the epidemiology of influenza in Ghana. We present here the results of this surveillance system from 2011 to 2019. As part of the Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response (IDSR) system of the GHS under the Ministry of Health (MOH), oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal swabs were collected from patients who met a modified World Health Organization (WHO) case definition for ILI or severe acute respiratory illness (SARI) through a sentinel surveillance system in the country. Samples were transported to the National Influenza Centre (NIC) at the NMIMR and tested for influenza virus using protocols defined by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Selected isolates were sent to the WHO collaborating centre in the United Kingdom for further antigenic characterization. From 2011 to 2019, the NIC tested a total of 21,747 ILI samples and 3,429 SARI samples. Influenza positivity rates were highest in the 5-14 year old group for both ILI (20.8%) and SARI (23.8%). Compared to females, more males were seen at the health facilities for ILI and SARI symptoms with a statistically significant difference in influenza positive ILI (15% vs 13.2%, p <0.001). In terms of absolute numbers, more cases were seen at the health centres during the wet seasons (April to October) compared to the dry seasons (November to March) in Ghana. This study presents 9 years of surveillance data from outpatient and inpatient setting on influenza activity as well as the influenza A subtypes and B lineages that drive the activity. This presents useful information for influenza vaccine selection and administration. Ghana's unique influenza activity patterns also present a challenge in predicting when an outbreak could occur.

Whole Genome Sequencing and Antimicrobial Resistance of Staphylococcus aureus from Surgical Site Infections in Ghana.

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a common cause of surgical site infections (SSIs) globally. Data on the occurrence of methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) as well as methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) among patients with surgical site infections (SSIs) in sub-Saharan African are scarce. We characterized S. aureus from SSIs in Ghana using molecular methods and antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST). Wound swabs or aspirate samples were collected from subjects with SSIs. S. aureus was identified by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS); AST was performed by Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion, and results were interpreted according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) guideline. Detection of spa, mecA, and pvl genes was performed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) was done using the Illumina MiSeq platform. Samples were collected from 112 subjects, with 13 S. aureus isolates recovered. Of these, 92% were sensitive to co-trimoxazole, 77% to clindamycin, and 54% to erythromycin. Multi-drug resistance was detected in 5 (38%) isolates. The four mecA gene-positive MRSA isolates detected belonged to ST152 (n = 3) and ST5 (n = 1). In total, 62% of the isolates were positive for the Panton-Valentine leukocidin (pvl) toxin gene. This study reports, for the first time, a pvl-positive ST152-t355 MRSA clone from SSIs in Ghana. The occurrence of multi-drug-resistant S. aureus epidemic clones suggests that continuous surveillance is required to monitor the spread and resistance trends of S. aureus in hospital settings in the country.

Postmortem diagnosis of COVID-19: Antemortem challenges of three cases at the 37 Military Hospital, Accra, Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Consistency among clinical symptoms, laboratory results and autopsy findings can be a quality measure in the diagnosis of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). There have been classic clinical cases that have met the case definition of COVID-19 but real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) tests of nasopharyngeal swabs were negative. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to share pathological observations of autopsies performed at the 37 Military Hospital's Department of Anatomical Pathology on three presumed COVID-19 cases in Accra, Ghana. METHOD: Complete autopsies with detailed gross and histopathological analysis were conducted between April 2020 and May 2020 on three suspected COVID-19 cases, of which two had initial negative (rRT-PCR) nasopharyngeal tests. Postmortem bronchopulmonary samples of two cases were collected and tested by rRT-PCR for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). RESULTS: The two postmortem bronchopulmonary samples tested for SARS-CoV-2 by rRT-PCR were positive. Though no postmortem bronchopulmonary sample was taken from the third case, a close contact tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 in later contact tracing. For all three cases, lung histopathological findings were consistent with Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome. CONCLUSION: The outcome of COVID-19 testing is dependent on the sample type and accuracy of sampling amongst other factors. Histopathological findings vary and may be dependent on a patient's modifying factors, as well as the duration of infection. More autopsies are required to fully understand the pathogenesis of this disease in Ghanaians.

Is it time to use nucleic acid amplification tests for identification of persons with sexually transmitted infections?: evidence from seroprevalence and behavioral epidemiology risk surveys in men with chlamydia and gonorrhea.

Chlamydia and gonorrhea are common sexually transmitted infections (STIs) that can cause multiple problems, and can be easily treated, but frequently present without symptoms. Because of this, commonly used syndromic diagnosis misses a majority of infected persons. Previously, diagnostic tests were expensive and invasive, but newer nucleic-acid amplification tests (NAATs) are available that use urine to non-invasively test for these infections. These analyses used data from seroprevalence studies conducted in five militaries. Data included self-reported current symptoms of STIs as well as chlamydia and gonorrhea NAAT results. A total of 4923 men were screened for chlamydia and gonorrhea from these 5 militaries during April 2016 to October 2017. The combined prevalence of chlamydia and gonorrhea in these five militaries ranged from 2.3% in Burundi to 11.9% in Belize. These infections were not successfully identified by symptomology; for example, only 2% of cases in Belize reported symptoms. In three of the five countries there was no statistical association between symptoms and positive NAAT results. The majority of individuals with these infections (81% to 98%) would be undiagnosed and untreated using only symptomology. Therefore, using symptoms alone to diagnose cases of chlamydia and gonorrhea is not an effective way to control these infections. We propose that automated, cartridge-based NAATs, be considered for routine use in diagnosing those at risk for STIs.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and molecular characterization of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in Ghana, 2012-2015.

Neisseria gonorrhoeae antimicrobial resistance (AMR) surveillance is essential for tracking the emergence and spread of AMR strains in local, national and international populations. This is crucial for developing or refining treatment guidelines. N. gonorrhoeae multiantigen sequence typing (NG-MAST) is beneficial for describing the molecular epidemiology of gonococci at national and international levels. Elucidation of AMR determinants to ß-lactam drugs, is a means of monitoring the development of resistance. In Ghana, little is known about the current gonococcal AMR prevalence and no characterization of gonococcal isolates has been previously performed. In this study, gonococcal isolates (n = 44) collected from five health facilities in Ghana from 2012 to 2015, were examined using AMR testing, NG-MAST and sequencing of penA. High rates of resistance were identified to tetracycline (100%), benzylpenicillin (90.9%), and ciprofloxacin (81.8%). One isolate had a high cefixime MIC (0.75 µg/ml). Twenty-eight NG-MAST sequence types (STs) were identified, seventeen of which were novel. The isolate with the high cefixime MIC contained a mosaic penA-34 allele and belonged to NG-MAST ST1407, an internationally spreading multidrug-resistant clone that has accounted for most cefixime resistance in many countries. In conclusion, AMR testing, NG-MAST, and sequencing of the AMR determinant penA, revealed high rates of resistance to tetracycline, benzylpenicillin, and ciprofloxacin; as well as a highly diverse population of N. gonorrhoeae in Ghana. It is imperative to continue with enhanced AMR surveillance and to understand the molecular epidemiology of gonococcal strains circulating in Ghana and other African countries.

Risk factors associated with gonorrhea and chlamydia transmission in selected health facilities in Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Understanding the underlying epidemiology that shapes Neisseria gonorrhoeae (GC), and Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) infections can contribute to data driven policies directed towards curbing the proliferation of these pathogens in Ghana. Information on the symptoms and risk factors for STIs will help to identify high-risk individuals which will in turn inform STI syndromic management and tailor the use of public health resources. METHODS: Participants were from 4 military clinics and 1 civilian STI clinic in Ghana and eligible if they had symptoms suggestive of STI. First void urine samples were collected and tested with Nucleic Acid Amplification Test (NAAT). A structured questionnaire was administered to all participants. Multivariate logistic regression identified factors associated with infection, separately for NG and for CT and for men and women. RESULTS: A total of 950 patients, 58% of whom were females were enrolled, 28% had gonorrhea and 11% had chlamydia with more males testing positive than females. Reported symptoms that were more common among patients who tested positive for gonorrhea were painful urination and urethral discharge (all P values < 0.05). Additionally, multiple sexual partners and alcohol use were statistically associated with higher rates of gonorrhea in males while only the frequency of condom use was associated with gonorrhea for females. None of the symptoms or risk factors except marital status was associated with testing positive for chlamydia. CONCLUSION: Identifying these symptoms and risk factors help inform health care delivery systems for STIs in Ghana. Furthermore, men and women presenting with these symptoms and risk factors are a prime target for public health education campaigns, aimed at curbing the spread of gonorrhea and chlamydia infections.

Sentinel surveillance for influenza among severe acute respiratory infection and acute febrile illness inpatients at three hospitals in Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Influenza epidemiology in Africa is generally not well understood. Using syndrome definitions to screen patients for laboratory confirmation of infection is an established means to effectively conduct influenza surveillance. METHODS: To compare influenza-related epidemiologic data, from October 2010 through March 2013, we enrolled hospitalized severe acute respiratory infection (SARI; fever with respiratory symptoms) and acute febrile illness (AFI; fever without respiratory or other localizing symptoms) patients from three referral hospitals in Ghana. Demographic and epidemiologic data were obtained from enrolled patients after which nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal swabs were collected, and processed by molecular methods for the presence of influenza viruses. RESULTS: Of 730 SARI patients, 59 (8%) were influenza positive; of 543 AFI patients, 34 (6%) were positive for influenza. Both SARI and AFI surveillance yielded influenza A(H3N2) (3% versus 1%), A(H1N1)pdm09 (2% versus 1%), and influenza B (3% versus 4%) in similar proportions. Data from both syndromes show year-round influenza transmission but with increased caseloads associated with the rainy seasons. CONCLUSIONS: As an appreciable percentage of influenza cases (37%) presented without defined respiratory symptoms, and thus met the AFI but not the SARI definition, it is important to consider broader screening criteria (i.e., AFI) to identify all laboratory-confirmed influenza. The identified influenza transmission seasonality has important implications for the timing of related public health interventions.

Molecular confirmation of Lassa fever imported into Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Recent reports have shown an expansion of Lassa virus from the area where it was first isolated in Nigeria to other areas of West Africa. Two Ghanaian soldiers on a United Nations peacekeeping mission in Liberia were taken ill with viral haemorrhagic fever syndrome following the death of a sick colleague and were referred to a military hospital in Accra, Ghana, in May 2013. Blood samples from the soldiers and five asymptomatic close contacts were subjected to laboratory investigations. OBJECTIVE: We report the results of these investigations to highlight the importance of molecular diagnostic applications and the need for heightened awareness about Lassa fever in West Africa. METHODS: We used molecular assays on sera from the two patients to identify the causative organism. Upon detection of positive signals for Lassa virus ribonucleic material by two different polymerase chain reaction assays, sequencing and phylogenetic analyses were performed. RESULTS: The presence of Lassa virus in the soldiers' blood samples was shown by L-gene segment homology to be the Macenta and las803792 strains previously isolated in Liberia, with close relationships then confirmed by phylogenetic tree construction. The five asymptomatic close contacts were negative for Lassa virus. CONCLUSIONS: The Lassa virus strains identified in the two Ghanaian soldiers had molecular epidemiological links to strains from Liberia. Lassa virus was probably responsible for the outbreak of viral haemorrhagic fever in the military camp. These data confirm Lassa fever endemicity in West Africa.

Imported Lassa fever: a report of 2 cases in Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Lassa fever is a potentially fatal acute viral illness caused by Lassa virus which is carried by rodents and is endemic in some West African countries. Importation of emerging infections such as Lassa fever, Ebola Virus Disease and other viral hemorrhagic fevers into non endemic regions is a growing threat particularly as international travel and commitments in resolving conflicts in endemic countries in the West Africa sub-region continue. CASE PRESENTATION: We report the first two recorded imported cases of Lassa fever among Ghanaian Peace keepers in rural Liberia, who became ill while on Peace keeping mission. They were subsequently evacuated to the UN level IV hospital in Accra, where their illnesses were laboratory confirmed. One of the patients recovered with ribavirin treatment and supportive therapy. No secondary clinical cases occurred in Ghana. CONCLUSIONS: Healthcare providers at all levels of care should thus have a high index of suspicion for these infectious diseases and adopt standard infection control measures when treating patients in endemic regions or returning travelers from an endemic region with a febrile illness even of a known etiology.

Gonorrhea surveillance in Ghana, Africa.

OBJECTIVES: We face the specter of global transmission of highly resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae. The U.S. Department of Defense's Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center has engaged many military and civilian partners (including Ghana) in a sexually transmitted infections (STI) program to address emerging needs in STI surveillance. We implemented gonorrhea surveillance in Ghana to fill the gap in knowledge regarding gonorrhea prevalence and antimicrobial resistance characterization in Ghana. METHODS: Gonorrhea surveillance was conducted from June 2012 to March 2013 as one of the AFHSC surveillance network partners at two Ghana Armed Forces (GAF) military clinics. The population encompassed a convenience sampling of patients presenting with STI symptoms. Urine was taken for nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT). A urethral or cervical/vaginal specimen was obtained for culture and antibiotic susceptibility testing. RESULTS: 13/220 (6%) specimens tested were positive by culture (7 of which were confirmed); and 39/213 (18%) specimens tested were positive by NAAT. Positive results were biased toward men. Cultures were resistant to ciprofloxacin, penicillin and tetracycline and sensitive to cephalosporins. CONCLUSION: This investigation provides data on gonorrhea prevalence and resistance profiles in Ghana hitherto poorly characterized. We note significant resistance to fluoroquinolones without the presence of resistance yet to the cephalosporins.

Biosecurity measures to reduce influenza infections in military barracks in Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Military barracks in Ghana have backyard poultry populations but the methods used here involve low biosecurity measures and high risk zoonosis such as avian influenza A viruses or Newcastle disease. We assessed biosecurity measures intended to minimize the risk of influenza virus infection among troops and poultry keepers in military barracks. FINDINGS: We educated troops and used a questionnaire to collect information on animal populations and handling practices from 168 individuals within 203 households in military barracks. Cloacal and tracheal samples were taken from 892 healthy domestic and domesticated wild birds, 91 sick birds and 6 water samples for analysis using molecular techniques for the detection of influenza A virus. Of the 1090 participants educated and 168 that responded to a questionnaire, 818 (75%) and 129 (76.8%) respectively have heard of pandemic avian influenza and the risks associated with its infection. Even though no evidence of the presence of avian influenza infection was found in the 985 birds sampled, only 19.5% of responders indicated they disinfect their coops regularly and 28% wash their hands after handling their birds. Vaccination of birds and use of personal protective clothing while handling the birds were low putting the people at risk. CONCLUSION: Though some efforts have been made to improve biosecurity practices, interventions that help to protect the poultry flock from direct contact have to be practiced. Basic hygiene like washing of hands with soap and running water and regular cleaning of chicken coops are needed to prevent the spread of diseases among birds and between birds and humans.