Analysis of extracellular vesicle microRNA profiles reveals distinct blood and lymphatic endothelial cell origins.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are crucial mediators of cell-to-cell communication in physiological and pathological conditions. Specifically, EVs released from the vasculature into blood were found to be quantitatively and qualitatively different in diseases compared to healthy states. However, our understanding of EVs derived from the lymphatic system is still scarce. In this study, we compared the mRNA and microRNA (miRNA) expression in blood vascular (BEC) and lymphatic (LEC) endothelial cells. After characterization of the EVs by fluorescence-triggered flow cytometry, nanoparticle tracking analysis and cryo-transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) we utilized small RNA-sequencing to characterize miRNA signatures in the EVs and identify cell-type specific miRNAs in BEC and LEC. We found miRNAs specifically enriched in BEC and LEC on the cellular as well as the extracellular vesicle level. Our data provide a solid basis for further functional in vitro and in vivo studies addressing the role of EVs in the blood and lymphatic vasculature.

Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Induces Vasodilation in Liver Vessels That Is Not Mediated by Unfolded Protein Response.

There is a growing body of evidence that ER stress and the unfolded protein response (UPR) play a key role in numerous diseases. Impaired liver perfusion and ER stress often accompany each other in liver diseases. However, the exact impact of ER stress and UPR on the hepatic perfusion is not fully understood. The aim of this study was to disclose the effect of ER stress and UPR on the size of liver vessels and on the levels of Ca2+ and nitric oxide (NO), critical regulators of vascular tonus. This study was carried out in precisely cut liver tissue slices. Confocal microscopy was used to create 3D images of vessels. NO levels were determined either using either laser scan microscopy (LSM) in cells or by NO-analyser in medium. Ca2+ levels were analysed by LSM. We show that tunicamycin, an inducer of ER stress, acts similarly with vasodilator acetylcholine. Both exert a similar effect on the NO and Ca2+ levels; both induce significant vasodilation. Notably, this vasodilative effect persisted despite individual inhibition of UPR pathways-ATF-6, PERK, and IRE1-despite confirming the activation of UPR. Experiments with HUVEC cells showed that elevated NO levels did not result from endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) activation. Our study suggests that tunicamycin-mediated ER stress induces liver vessel vasodilation in an NO-dependent manner, which is mediated by intracellular nitrodilator-activatable NO store (NANOS) in smooth muscle cells rather than by eNOS.

Circulating endothelial extracellular vesicle signatures correspond with ICU requirement: an exploratory study in COVID-19 patients.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) represent nanometer-sized, subcellular spheres, that are released from almost any cell type and carry a wide variety of biologically relevant cargo. In severe cases of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and other states of systemic pro-inflammatory activation, EVs, and their cargo can serve as conveyors and indicators for disease severity and progression. This information may help distinguish individuals with a less severe manifestation of the disease from patients who exhibit severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and require intensive care measures. Here, we investigated the potential of EVs and associated miRNAs to distinguish normal ward patients from intensive care unit (ICU) patients (N = 10/group), with 10 healthy donors serving as the control group. Blood samples from which plasma and subsequently EVs were harvested by differential ultracentrifugation (UC) were obtained at several points in time throughout treatment. EV-enriched fractions were characterized by flow cytometry (FC), nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA), and qPCR to determine the presence of selected miRNAs. Circulating EVs showed specific protein signatures associated with endothelial and platelet origin over the course of the treatment. Additionally, significantly higher overall EV quantities corresponded with increased COVID-19 severity. MiR-223-3p, miR-191-5p, and miR-126-3p exhibited higher relative expression in the ICU group. Furthermore, EVs presenting endothelial-like protein signatures and the associated miR-126-3p showed the highest area under the curve in terms of receiver operating characteristics regarding the requirement for ICU treatment. In this exploratory investigation, we report that specific circulating EVs and miRNAs appear at higher levels in COVID-19 patients, especially when critical care measures are indicated. Our data suggest that endothelial-like EVs and associated miRNAs likely represent targets for future laboratory assays and may aid in clinical decision-making in COVID-19.

Wavelength-Dependent Effects of Photobiomodulation for Wound Care in Diabetic Wounds.

Photobiomodulation, showing positive effects on wound healing processes, has been performed mainly with lasers in the red/infrared spectrum. Light of shorter wavelengths can significantly influence biological systems. This study aimed to evaluate and compare the therapeutic effects of pulsed LED light of different wavelengths on wound healing in a diabetic (db/db) mouse excision wound model. LED therapy by Repuls was applied at either 470 nm (blue), 540 nm (green) or 635 nm (red), at 40 mW/cm2 each. Wound size and wound perfusion were assessed and correlated to wound temperature and light absorption in the tissue. Red and trend-wise green light positively stimulated wound healing, while blue light was ineffective. Light absorption was wavelength-dependent and was associated with significantly increased wound perfusion as measured by laser Doppler imaging. Shorter wavelengths ranging from green to blue significantly increased wound surface temperature, while red light, which penetrates deeper into tissue, led to a significant increase in core body temperature. In summary, wound treatment with pulsed red or green light resulted in improved wound healing in diabetic mice. Since impeded wound healing in diabetic patients poses an ever-increasing socio-economic problem, LED therapy may be an effective, easily applied and cost-efficient supportive treatment for diabetic wound therapy.

Occurrence of Lymphangiogenesis in Peripheral Nerve Autografts Contrasts Schwann Cell-Induced Apoptosis of Lymphatic Endothelial Cells In Vitro.

Peripheral nerve injuries pose a major clinical concern world-wide, and functional recovery after segmental peripheral nerve injury is often unsatisfactory, even in cases of autografting. Although it is well established that angiogenesis plays a pivotal role during nerve regeneration, the influence of lymphangiogenesis is strongly under-investigated. In this study, we analyzed the presence of lymphatic vasculature in healthy and regenerated murine peripheral nerves, revealing that nerve autografts contained increased numbers of lymphatic vessels after segmental damage. This led us to elucidate the interaction between lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) and Schwann cells (SCs) in vitro. We show that SC and LEC secretomes did not influence the respective other cell types' migration and proliferation in 2D scratch assay experiments. Furthermore, we successfully created lymphatic microvascular structures in SC-embedded 3D fibrin hydrogels, in the presence of supporting cells; whereas SCs seemed to exert anti-lymphangiogenic effects when cultured with LECs alone. Here, we describe, for the first time, increased lymphangiogenesis after peripheral nerve injury and repair. Furthermore, our findings indicate a potential lymph-repellent property of SCs, thereby providing a possible explanation for the lack of lymphatic vessels in the healthy endoneurium. Our results highlight the importance of elucidating the molecular mechanisms of SC-LEC interaction.

Characterisation of Extracellular Vesicles from Equine Mesenchymal Stem Cells.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanosized lipid bilayer-encapsulated particles secreted by virtually all cell types. EVs play an essential role in cellular crosstalk in health and disease. The cellular origin of EVs determines their composition and potential therapeutic effect. Mesenchymal stem/stromal cell (MSC)-derived EVs have shown a comparable therapeutic potential to their donor cells, making them a promising tool for regenerative medicine. The therapeutic application of EVs circumvents some safety concerns associated with the transplantation of viable, replicating cells and facilitates the quality-controlled production as a ready-to-go, off-the-shelf biological therapy. Recently, the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles (ISEV) suggested a set of minimal biochemical, biophysical and functional standards to define extracellular vesicles and their functions to improve standardisation in EV research. However, nonstandardised EV isolation methods and the limited availability of cross-reacting markers for most animal species restrict the application of these standards in the veterinary field and, therefore, the species comparability and standardisation of animal experiments. In this study, EVs were isolated from equine bone-marrow-derived MSCs using two different isolation methods, stepwise ultracentrifugation and size exclusion chromatography, and minimal experimental requirements for equine EVs were established and validated. Equine EVs were characterised using a nanotracking analysis, fluorescence-triggered flow cytometry, Western blot and transelectron microscopy. Based on the ISEV standards, minimal criteria for defining equine EVs are suggested as a baseline to allow the comparison of EV preparations obtained by different laboratories.

Lymphatic and Blood Endothelial Extracellular Vesicles: A Story Yet to Be Written.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), such as exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies, are cell-derived, lipid bilayer-enclosed particles mediating intercellular communication and are therefore vital for transmitting a plethora of biological signals. The vascular endothelium substantially contributes to the circulating particulate secretome, targeting important signaling pathways that affect blood cells and regulate adaptation and plasticity of endothelial cells in a paracrine manner. Different molecular signatures and functional properties of endothelial cells reflect their heterogeneity among different vascular beds and drive current research to understand varying physiological and pathological effects of blood and lymphatic endothelial EVs. Endothelial EVs have been linked to the development and progression of various vascular diseases, thus having the potential to serve as biomarkers and clinical treatment targets. This review aims to provide a brief overview of the human vasculature, the biology of extracellular vesicles, and the current knowledge of endothelium-derived EVs, including their potential role as biomarkers in disease development.

Cre mRNA Is Not Transferred by EVs from Endothelial and Adipose-Derived Stromal/Stem Cells during Vascular Network Formation.

Coculture systems employing adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (ASC) and endothelial cells (EC) represent a widely used technique to model vascularization. Within this system, cell-cell communication is crucial for the achievement of functional vascular network formation. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have recently emerged as key players in cell communication by transferring bioactive molecules between cells. In this study we aimed to address the role of EVs in ASC/EC cocultures by discriminating between cells, which have received functional EV cargo from cells that have not. Therefore, we employed the Cre-loxP system, which is based on donor cells expressing the Cre recombinase, whose mRNA was previously shown to be packaged into EVs and reporter cells containing a construct of floxed dsRed upstream of the eGFP coding sequence. The evaluation of Cre induced color switch in the reporter system via EVs indicated that there is no EV-mediated RNA transmission either between EC themselves or EC and ASC. However, since Cre mRNA was not found present in EVs, it remains unclear if Cre mRNA is generally not packaged into EVs or if EVs are not taken up by the utilized cell types. Our data indicate that this technique may not be applicable to evaluate EV-mediated cell-to-cell communication in an in vitro setting using EC and ASC. Further investigations will require a functional system showing efficient and specific loading of Cre mRNA or protein into EVs.

Fluorescence-Based Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis and Flow Cytometry for Characterization of Endothelial Extracellular Vesicle Release.

As extracellular vesicles (EVs) have become a prominent topic in life sciences, a growing number of studies are published on a regular basis addressing their biological relevance and possible applications. Nevertheless, the fundamental question of the true vesicular nature as well as possible influences on the EV secretion behavior have often been not adequately addressed. Furthermore, research regarding endothelial cell-derived EVs (EndoEVs) often focused on the large vesicular fractions comprising of microvesicles (MV) and apoptotic bodies. In this study we aimed to further extend the current knowledge of the influence of pre-isolation conditions, such as cell density and conditioning time, on EndoEV release from human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). We combined fluorescence nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and the established fluorescence-triggered flow cytometry (FT-FC) protocol to allow vesicle-specific detection and characterization of size and surface markers. We found significant effects of cell density and conditioning time on both abundance and size distribution of EndoEVs. Additionally, we present detailed information regarding the surface marker display on EVs from different fractions and size ranges. Our data provide crucial relevance for future projects aiming to elucidate EV secretion behavior of endothelial cells. Moreover, we show that the influence of different conditioning parameters on the nature of EndoEVs has to be considered.