Long-term trends and sources of organochlorine contamination in Canadian tundra Peregrine Falcons, Falco peregrinus tundrius.

Levels of eggshell thinning, and organochlorine residues in egg contents, blood plasma of adults and juveniles, tissue samples, and prey species were determined for a population of migratory Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus tundrius) breeding in the Canadian Arctic. Temporal trends were assessed by comparing data collected during 1991-1994, with data from 1982-1986, for the same population. Shells (n=54) from 1991-1994 averaged 15% thinner than eggs produced prior to the introduction of DDT. No improvement in shell thickness was detected between decades. Mean DDE residue levels in eggs showed a decline from 7.6 mg kg (1982-1986) to 4.5 mg kg (1991-1994), but there was no significant change in SigmaPCB residues. Moreover, the proportion of clutches with eggs exceeding critical SigmaPCB, DDE, and dieldrin residue levels (10%) did not change between decades. Relative to Greenland and Alaskan populations, F. p. tundrius at Rankin Inlet show high levels of organochlorine contamination and little reduction in residues over the last decade. These Tundra Peregrines continue to be exposed to organochlorines in Latin America; however, results also link relatively high levels in the study population with waterfowl species that do not leave Canada in winter.

Reflective organelles in the anterior pigment epithelium of the iris of the European starling Sturnus vulgaris.

The ultrastructure and chemical composition of reflective organelles in the anterior pigment epithelium of the iris of the European starling Sturnus vulgaris were examined. The reflective organelles produced a diffuse white reflectance at the iris mid-section which was visible only when the stroma was removed. The pigment granules were clear, angular, and birefringent under the light microscope. In electron micrographs the granules were irregular in shape and density, sometimes crystalline in appearance, but more often they were lost during sectioning or staining. Guanine was abundant in the modified pigment epithelium of the starling, but not in the pigment epithelia of other birds that lacked birefringent granules. Pteridines, such as xanthopterin and leucopterin, were present in small amounts. Pteridines were also present in the iris stroma which had no reflective organelles. The reflective organelles in the starling pigment epithelium resemble both the reflecting platelets of lower vertebrate chromatophores and the reflective granules in the tapeta of various vertebrates. Possible derivation of the organelles from these sources is discussed.

No evidence for extrapair fertilizations in the merlin revealed by DNA fingerprinting.

Broods of young merlins were compared with the adults in attendance at their nest by DNA fingerprinting. No offspring were found that mismatched genetically suggesting that intraspecific brood parasitism and extrapair fertilization are very rare in this population. The results are discussed in the light of the Paternity Assurance Hypothesis.

Pteridines as reflecting pigments and components of reflecting organelles in vertebrates.

This paper reviews evidence for the presence of pteridines in iridophores, leucophores, and xanthophores in a wide variety of vertebrate chromatophores, and argues that the chemical and functional distinction between pterinosomes and reflecting platelets is not as clear-cut as previously believed. Observations indicate that: (1) Pteridines may, either alone or in conjunction with purines, form pigment granules that reflect light, (2) these pigment granules are highly variable ranging from fibrous pterinosomes to typical reflecting platelets and may be colored, reflect white light, or be iridescent, and (3) many "leucophores" probably contain typical pterinosomes and presumed associated colorless pteridines and are therefore more closely related to erythrophores and xanthophores than to iridophores with which they are usually classified. We propose that the classification of pigment cells should be modified to reflect these facts.

Pigment cell refugia in homeotherms--the unique evolutionary position of the iris.

Homeotherms are generally considered to lack classical active dermal pigment cells (chromatophores) in their integument, attributable to the development of an outer covering coat of hair or feathers. However, bright colored dermal pigment cells, comparable to chromatophores of lower vertebrates, are found in the irides of many birds. We propose that, because of its exposed location, the iris is an area in which color from pigment cells has sustained a selective advantage and appears to have evolved independently of the general integument. In birds, the iris appears to have retained the potential for the complete expression of all dermal chromatophore types. Differences in cell morphology and the presence of unusual pigments in birds are suggested to be the result of evolutionary changes that followed the divergence of birds from reptiles. By comparison, mammals appear to have lost the potential for producing iridophores, xanthophores, or erythrophores comparable to those of lower vertebrates, even though some species possess brightly colored irides. It is proposed that at least one species of mammal (the domestic cat) has recruited a novel iridial reflecting pigment organelle originally developed in the choroidal tapetum lucidum. The potential presence of classical chromatophores in mammals remains open, as few species with bright irides have been examined.

Development and immunophenotyping of the pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid) in cattle.

Immunoperoxidase staining and electron and light microscopy were used to characterize the development of the pharyngeal tonsil in 98 cattle aged between 30 days of gestation and 12 years. The rugae of the pharyngeal tonsil were poorly formed before 95 days of gestation. Microvillous (M) cells associated with intra-epithelial leucocytes (lympho-epithelium) were scattered among ciliated and goblet cells covering most of the surface in post-natal animals. Intra-epithelial leucocytes were rare in fetuses, but ciliated and M cells could be distinguished. Leucocytes of the lamina propria started to accumulate at approximately 120 days of gestation. A loose accumulation of mononuclear cells progressed into a B-cell rich upper and T-cell rich lower layer, with typical lymphoid tissue organization in post-natal animals and lymphoid involution in aged cattle. Primary lymphoid follicles formed at 5 months of gestation, but germinal centres did not form until 2 to 4 weeks after birth. Except for null cells, the relative number of cells staining for each leucocyte phenotype or MHC class II antigen increased with age, especially during the neonatal period. The early development, strategic location and specialized structure of the pharyngeal tonsil suggest an important role in modulating inhaled antigens in cattle. Fetal and neonatal calves had minimal lymphoid tissue priming, as indicated by lack of secondary follicles, low MHC class II expression and few intra-epithelial leucocytes. The phenotypic differences may be relevant to the increased susceptibility of calves to infectious diseases shortly after birth.

Iris stromal pigment cells of the ringed turtle dove.

Irides from adult Ringed Turtle Doves (Streptopelia risoria) were examined using both light and electron microscopy. The anterior surface of the iris stroma contained numerous large venous sinuses overlying bright yellow pigment cells which we classified as "reflecting xanthophores." The pigment cells were filled with irregularly arranged yellow reflecting crystals and occasional pterinosome-like structures. The irides were extracted in NaOH and the extracted pigments analyzed using paper chromatography and spectrophotometry. A unique bright orange fluorescent band was found in the iris extract, but the chemical nature of the band was not determined. Although guanine was expected to be a major component of the reflecting "platelets," based on previous work with other Columbiformes, it could not be demonstrated chromatographically or spectrophotometrically.

Pteridines and purines as major pigments of the avian iris.

Stromal pigments from the irises of 28 species of birds having brightly colored eyes were extracted and analyzed. Carotenoids were present in six species and they were the sole bright pigment in only two of these. The iris pigments of the majority of the birds examined were soluble in 0.1 M NaOH and chromatographic analysis indicated they were primarily pteridines and purines. The pteridines often occurred in a crystalline state, either alone or, more commonly, in conjunction with purines.

Observations on the pigmentation of the pigeon iris.

There are three genetically controlled iris types found in the pigeon, two of which contain stromal pigment cells, the third lacks pigment cells. The yellow (gravel) and white (pearl) iris types have pigment cells that contain birefringent pigment granules (crystals) and are ultrastructurally similar to iridophores of poikilothermic vertebrates. Both these iris types contain guanine as a major "pigment" and, in addition, the yellow iris contains at least two yellow fluorescing pigments that are tentatively identified as pteridines. The pigment cells of the yellow and white irises are structurally identical differing only in the presence or absence of these yellow pigments. The stromal pigment cells of the white iris correspond in structure and pigment chemistry to classical iridophores although they lack strong irridescence and are therefore perhaps best considered leucophores. The pigment cells of the yellow iris can be considered "reflecting xanthophores" having the combined properties of both classical xanthophores and iridophore/leucophores.

Degradation of annular gap junctions of the equine hoof wall.

Annular gap junctions interiorized within cells of the stratum spinosum of the coronary border of the equine hoof were degraded by two methods. Some were autophagocytized and some appeared to fuse with lysosomes to form heterophagosomes. Structural changes of partially degraded annular gap junctions included increased density of the enclosed cytoplasm, formation of filamentous or membrane-like material within the annular gap junction, and disruption of the circular or oval profile of the gap junction. The annular gap junctions are apparently incorporated into the fully keratinized cells of the stratum corneum.

The musculature and pupillary response of the great horned owl iris.

There is considerable confusion in the literature regarding the nature of the musculature of the avian iris. The most commonly held view is that both the sphincter and dilator are striated. The iris of the Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus) has a complex iridial musculature consisting of three circumferential components (a myoepithelium, smooth muscle and striated muscle) and two radial components (a well-developed myoepithelium and a few striated fibers). On the basis of the anatomy and relative development of these components, and a quantitative analysis of the pupillary reflex, it is proposed that the circumferential striated muscle is the primary pupillary constrictor and radial myoepithelium is the primary dilator. The annular band of smooth muscle may play an important role in maintaining pupillary size.

Ultrastructure of the equine hoof wall secondary epidermal lamellae.

The ultrastructure of cells of the secondary epidermal lamellae from the hoof wall of 8 adult horses was described. Stages of progressive keratinization were not observed in this cell population. The morphologic features of cells of the secondary epidermal lamellae indicated that these lamellae were composed of nonmobile populations of cells and that primary epidermal lamellae moved past the secondary lamellae by breaking of the desmosomes connecting these 2 cell populations. Seemingly, debris present in the intercellular space between primary and secondary lamellae was a by-product of this remodeling.

Crystalline pteridines in the stromal pigment cells of the iris of the great horned owl.

The bright yellow color of the iris of the Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus) is due to unusual pigment cells in the iris stroma. These cells are spherical and contain numerous clear lipid droplets. Around the periphery of these cells are ovoid crystalline granules that are highly birefringent and vary in color from yellow to clear gray. Differential extraction of the lipid droplets and peripheral granules with lipid solvents and 2% KOH confirmed the localization of the yellow pigment in these granules. The color, solubility, fluorescence, chromatographic mobility and ultraviolet absorption of the extracted pigment suggest it is primarily xanthopterin. It is proposed that the peripheral granules are crystalline pterinosomes capable of reflecting light. Most of the cells contain yellow reflecting granules and can be considered reflecting xanthophores. Cells lying deeper in the stroma have colorless reflecting granules and can be considered pteridine containing leucophores.

Some comparative properties and localization of porcine jejunal adenylate cyclase.

Cholera toxin is thought to cause intestinal secretion by activating adenylate cyclase and increasing intracellular 3',5'-cyclic AMP concentrations in intestinal mucosa. Cholera toxin causes profuse secretion of fluid into ligated intestinal loops of both pigs and rabbits, but cholera toxin-induced increases in 3',5'-cyclic AMP concentration are much lower in the pig than in the rabbit. Porcine jejunal adenylate cyclase was examined for unusual properties which might account for a lack of 3'-5'-cyclic AMP accumulation after treatment with cholera toxin. The divalent cation requirements, the pH optimum, and the stimulation by fluoride ion were unremarkable. The Km for ATP was 0.11 mM with negative cooperativity indicated by a Hill coefficient of 0.83. Triton X-100 was inhibitory and guanosine diphosphate methylenephosphate stimulated enzyme activity. Adenylate cyclase activity was highest in the basal and lateral membrane fractions of jejunal mucosa and relatively low in brush-border preparations. Pretreatment of pig jejunum with cholera toxin caused a 30-40% activation of the crude and of the partly purified enzyme. A relatively low activation of adenylase cyclase in pig jejunal mucosa, compared with rabbit, may account for the absence of 3',5'-cyclic AMP accumulation after cholera-toxin treatment in the pig.