Comparing Comprehension of a Long Text Read in Print Book and on Kindle: Where in the Text and When in the Story?

Digital reading devices such as Kindle differ from paper books with respect to the kinesthetic and tactile feedback provided to the reader, but the role of these features in reading is rarely studied empirically. This experiment compares reading of a long text on Kindle DX and in print. Fifty participants (24 years old) read a 28 page (∼1 h reading time) long mystery story on Kindle or in a print pocket book and completed several tests measuring various levels of reading comprehension: engagement, recall, capacities to locate events in the text and reconstructing the plot of the story. Results showed that on most tests subjects performed identically whatever the reading medium. However, on measures related to chronology and temporality, those who had read in the print pocket book, performed better than those who had read on a Kindle. It is concluded that, basically comprehension was similar with both media, but, because kinesthetic feedback is less informative with a Kindle, readers were not as efficient to locate events in the space of the text and hence in the temporality of the story. We suggest that, to get a correct spatial representation of the text and consequently a coherent temporal organization of the story, readers would be reliant on the sensorimotor cues which are afforded by the manipulation of the book.

Stimulus-Response Compatibility Effect in the Near-Far Dimension: A Developmental Study.

The present study investigates the developmental aspect of stimulus-response compatibility (SRC) effect in 8-11-years-old children. The task consisted in manually responding to the color of a pawn presented on a chessboard at different distances. Manual responses were provided by reaching a proximal or distal location depending on the color of the stimulus. We found that reaction time was affected by the conflict generated by the response suggested by the location of the stimulus and the response required according to its color. This was not the case for movement time despite we found a higher rate of long duration movements in the incongruent than in the congruent spatial condition. The SRC effect was, however, observed in children older than 10 years old. These findings provide additional evidence for a reorganization of the perceptual system during the period of 8-10 years, integrating progressively multimodal information and preparing more efficiently the body to act in the environment.

Preparation of forefinger's sequence on keyboard orients ocular fixations on computer screen.

This study examined the links between attention, hand movements and eye movements when performed in different spatial areas. Participants performed a visual search task on a computer screen while preparing to press two keyboard keys sequentially with their index. Results showed that the planning of the manual sequence influenced the latency of the first saccade and the placement of the first fixation. In particular, even if the first fixation placement was influenced by the combination of both components of the prepared manual sequence in some trials, it was affected principally by the first component of the prepared manual sequence. Moreover, the probability that the first fixation placement did reflect a combination of both components of the manual sequence was correlated with the speed of the second component. This finding suggests that the preparation of the second component of the sequence influence simultaneous oculomotor behavior when motor control of the manual sequence relied on proactive motor planning. These results are discussed taking into account the current debate on the eye/hand coordination research.

Motor transfer from map ocular exploration to locomotion during spatial navigation from memory.

Spatial navigation from memory can rely on two different strategies: a mental simulation of a kinesthetic spatial navigation (egocentric route strategy) or visual-spatial memory using a mental map (allocentric survey strategy). We hypothesized that a previously performed "oculomotor navigation" on a map could be used by the brain to perform a locomotor memory task. Participants were instructed to (1) learn a path on a map through a sequence of vertical and horizontal eyes movements and (2) walk on the slabs of a "magic carpet" to recall this path. The main results showed that the anisotropy of ocular movements (horizontal ones being more efficient than vertical ones) influenced performances of participants when they change direction on the central slab of the magic carpet. These data suggest that, to find their way through locomotor space, subjects mentally repeated their past ocular exploration of the map, and this visuo-motor memory was used as a template for the locomotor performance.

Visual objects can potentiate a grasping neural simulation which interferes with manual response execution.

Previous studies on visuomotor priming have provided insufficient information to determine whether the reach-to-grasp potentiation of a non-target object produces a specific effect during response execution. In order to answer this question, subjects were instructed to reach and grasp a response device with either a power or a precision grip, depending on whether the stimulus they saw was empty or full. Stimuli consisted of containers (graspable with either a power or a precision grip), with non-graspable stimuli added as a control condition (geometrical shapes). The image of the non-target object was removed during the execution phase. Results demonstrate slower execution responses related to motor incompatibility, though conversely, no faster responses with motor compatibility. Moreover, any visuomotor priming effect required that the container be displayed during response execution. These data suggest that during response execution, motor incompatibility produces a disruptive effect likely due to competition between two cerebral events: motor control of the actual response execution and visual object reach-to-grasp neural simulation.

Ocular pursuit and visual memory of moving shapes.

This paper deals with visual memory of moving shapes. During a visual recognition task, shapes moved on a computer screen, at a constant speed, and in a direction that was either similar, orthogonal or opposite to the direction of motion during learning. Results showed that correct response rate varies according to oculomotor factors: (1) the motor skill of ocular pursuit during learning and (2) the compatibility between motor control of ocular pursuits during learning and recognition. These data suggest that recognition of a moving shape is linked to recognition of ocular pursuits that subjects had previously repeated during shape learning. Possible neural substrates underlying this sensorimotor integration are discussed. More generally, these data shed light on the role of eye movements in visual memory organization.

Visuomotor priming of a manual reaching movement during a perceptual decision task.

This paper deals with the mental simulation of manual movement that sometimes accompanies the visual perception of an object. Previous studies investigated how visual objects prime the grasping manual movement they afford. The principal purpose of the present experiment was to determine if such visuomotor priming also concerns the reaching manual movement that visual objects afford. During a perceptual decision task, 32 subjects were asked to grasp a proximal or distal switch, as fast and accurately as possible, depending on the color of a chess piece displayed on a computer screen. Results showed an effect on the reaction times of the interaction between the position of the chess piece on the chessboard and the manual response, suggesting that subjects mentally simulated a manual reaching movement toward the perceived chess piece.

Mental rotation and simulation of a reaching and grasping manual movement.

This paper deals with the kind of manual movement subjects mentally simulate when solving a left-right judgment task that requires rotating images of hands. 50 female students were asked to judge the laterality of drawings of rotated hands presented successively to the right and left visual hemifields by clicking on a mouse using either the right or left hand. Reaction times and accuracy of judgment were recorded. Analysis showed performances varied with the rotation angle at which the stimulus was presented, indicating that the subjects mentally simulated a rotation process. An interaction occurred between the visually presented hand and the responding hand, which suggests that the mental rotation process involved the simulation of a hand movement. Performance improved when the drawing of a hand was presented in the 'palm-up' position, and to the visual hemifield opposite with respect to the hand the subject moved mentally. The latter two findings suggest that the subjects performed a simulated reaching and grasping movement rather than a simulated positioning movement.