Open Defecation, Livestock Ownership, and Child Nutritional Status in India.

South Asian children are among the most severely malnourished worldwide. One prominent hypothesis is that open defecation in the local area exposes children to human fecal pathogens that can cause diarrhea and malnutrition. Much of the existing research uses district-level measures of open defecation, which could mask important local-area variation. A second hypothesis is that animal fecal matter is a major source of exposure. This analysis tested these dual hypotheses using census data collected from 949 villages in Tamil Nadu, India, and a survey conducted in a random sample of 5,000 households in the same area. The final analytic sample consisted of 2,561 children aged 0-10 years. We estimated the association between the measures of village- and household-level open defecation, household livestock ownership, and child height-for-age Z-scores in a regression framework, controlling for potential confounders. Results revealed that village- and household-level open defecations are negatively associated with child height. There was an estimated difference of approximately 0.5 height-for-age Z-score between children living in villages with no open defecation and children in villages where all households practiced open defecation (P = 0.001) and a 0.2 Z-score difference between children living in households that practiced open defecation and those living in households that did not (P = 0.001). Livestock ownership was not associated with child height. Overall, the findings provide evidence on the centrality of open defecation in explaining persistent child malnutrition in India and the higher risk of exposure to human fecal pathogens compared with animal feces in the south Indian context.

Strategies for primary HPV test-based cervical cancer screening programme in resource-limited settings in India: Results from a quasi-experimental pragmatic implementation trial.

BACKGROUND: In order for low and middle income countries (LMIC) to transition to Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) test based cervical cancer screening, a greater understanding of how to implement these evidence based interventions (EBI) among vulnerable populations is needed. This paper documents outcomes of an implementation research on HPV screening among women from tribal, rural, urban slum settings in India. METHODS: A mixed-method, pragmatic, quasi-experimental trial design was used. HPV screening on self-collected cervical samples was offered to women aged 30-60 years. Implementation strategies were 1) Assessment of contextual factors using both qualitative and quantitative methods like key informant interviews (KII), focus group discussions (FGDs), pre-post population sample surveys, capacity assessment of participating departments 2) enhancing provider capacity through training workshops, access to HPV testing facility, colposcopy, thermal ablation/cryotherapy at the primary health care centers 3) community engagement, counselling for self-sampling and triage process by frontline health care workers (HCWs). Outcomes were assessed using the RE-AIM (Reach, Effectiveness, adoption, implementation, maintenance) framework. RESULTS: Screening rate in 8 months' of study was 31.0%, 26.7%, 32.9%, prevalence of oncogenic HPV was 12.1%, 3.1%, 5.5%, compliance to triage was 53.6%, 45.5%, 84.6% in tribal, urban slum, rural sites respectively. Pre-cancer among triage compliant HPV positive women was 13.6% in tribal, 4% in rural and 0% among urban slum women. Unique challenges faced in the tribal setting led to programme adaptations like increasing honoraria of community health workers for late-evening work and recalling HPV positive women for colposcopy by nurses, thermal ablation by gynaecologist at the outreach camp site. CONCLUSIONS: Self-collection of samples combined with HCW led community engagement activities, flexible triage processes and strengthening of health system showed an acceptable screening rate and better compliance to triage, highlighting the importance of identifying the barriers and developing strategies suitable for the setting. TRIAL REGISTRATION: CTRI/2021/09/036130.

Strengthening research capacity of early-mid career researchers: Implementation and evaluation of the Excellence in Non-COmmunicable disease REsearch (ENCORE) program.

High-quality training and networking are pivotal for enhancing the research capacity of early- to mid-career researchers in the prevention and control of non-communicable diseases. Beyond building research skills, these professionals gain valuable insights from interdisciplinary mentorship, networking opportunities, and exposure to diverse cultures and health systems. Despite the significance of such initiatives, their implementation remains underexplored. Here, we describe the implementation and evaluation of the Excellence in Non-COommunicable disease REsearch (ENCORE) program, a collaborative initiative between Australia and India that was launched in 2016 and spanned a duration of 3 years. Led by a consortium that included the University of Melbourne and leading Indian research and medical institutions, ENCORE involved 15 faculty members and 20 early-mid career researchers. The program comprised various elements, including face-to-face forums, masterclasses, webinars, a health-technology conference, and roundtable events. ENCORE successfully trained the early-career researchers, resulting in over 30 peer-reviewed articles, 36 conference presentations, and the submission of seven grant applications, three of which received funding. Beyond individual achievements, ENCORE fostered robust research collaboration between Australian and Indian institutions, showcasing its broader impact on strengthening research capacities across borders.

Patient and caregiver perspectives of select non-communicable diseases in India: A scoping review.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Patient-reported measures of encounters in healthcare settings and consideration of their preferences could provide valuable inputs to improve healthcare quality. Although there are increasing reports of user experiences regarding health care in India in recent times, there is a lack of evidence from Indian healthcare settings on the care provided for patients with chronic diseases. METHODS: We selected diabetes mellitus and cancer as representatives of two common conditions requiring different care pathways. We conducted a scoping review of studies reporting experiences or preferences of patients/caregivers for these conditions, in PubMed, Global Index Medicus and grey literature, from the year 2000 onwards. Both published and emergent themes were derived from the data and summarised as a narrative synthesis. RESULTS: Of 95 included studies (49 diabetes, 46 cancer), 73% (65) were exclusively quantitative surveys, 79% included only patients (75), and 59.5% (44) were conducted in government centres. Studies were concentrated in a few states in India, with the underrepresentation of vulnerable population groups and representative studies. There was a lack of standardised tools and comprehensive approaches for assessing experiences and preferences of patients and caregivers, concerning diabetes and cancers in India. The commonest type of care assessed was therapeutic (74), with 14 cancer studies on diagnosis and nine on palliative care. Repeated visits to crowded centres, drug refill issues, unavailability of specific services in government facilities, and expensive private care characterised diabetes care, while cancer care involved delayed diagnosis and treatment, communication, and pain management issues. CONCLUSIONS: There is a need for robust approaches and standardised tools to measure responsiveness of the healthcare system to patient needs, across geographical and population subgroups in India. Health system reforms are needed to improve access to high-quality care for treatment and palliation of cancer and management of chronic diseases such as diabetes.

Protocol for the formative phase of a trial (SHE-CAN) to test co-designed implementation strategies for HPV-based cervical screening among vulnerable women in two diverse settings in India.

BACKGROUND: In view of the WHO's call for the elimination of cervical cancer as a public health problem, and current low screening coverage, Indian policy makers need evidence on how to effectively implement cervical screening programmes, ensuring equity in access. Our study will follow the INSPIRE implementation framework to co-design and test HPV-based screening approaches in two states of India with different health system organisation, based on understanding the status of screening as currently implemented, readiness and challenges to transition to HPV-based screening, and preferences of key stakeholders. Here, we describe our protocol for the formative phase of the study (SHE-CAN). METHODS: The study population includes women from vulnerable populations, defined as residents of tribal areas, rural villages, and urban slums, in the states of Mizoram and Tamil Nadu. The baseline assessment will use mixed methods research, with desktop reviews, qualitative studies, and surveys. A capacity assessment survey of screening and treatment facilities will be done, followed by interviews with healthcare providers, programme managers, and community health workers. Interviews will be conducted with previously screened women and focus group discussions with under and never-screened women and community members. Stakeholder workshops will be held in each state to co-design the approaches to delivering HPV-based screening among 30-49-year-old women. DISCUSSION: The quality and outcomes of existing screening services, readiness to transition to HPV-based screening, challenges in providing and participating in the cervical cancer care continuum, and acceptability of screening and treatment approaches will be examined. The knowledge gained about the current system, as well as recognition of actions to be taken, will inform a stakeholder workshop to co-design and evaluate implementation approaches for HPV-based screening through a cluster randomised implementation trial.

Self-Collection Cervical Screening in the Asia-Pacific Region: A Scoping Review of Implementation Evidence.

PURPOSE: Although cervical cancer is a disease of inequity, it can be eliminated as a public health problem through vaccination, screening, and treatment. Human papillomavirus vaginal self-collection cervical screening is a high-performance test that can increase reach of screening. This review describes the different contexts and models of care used to pilot or implement self-collection within the Asia-Pacific, measures the extent that implementation outcome measures are reported and, where available, summarizes key implementation findings. METHODS: A scoping review was conducted by searching five databases of the peer-reviewed literature on June 20, 2022. Two researchers assessed eligibility and extracted data independently to the model of care used and the Conceptual Framework for Implementation Outcomes. A mixed-method consolidation of findings (quantitative: count and frequencies; qualitative: content analysis) was undertaken to narratively report findings. RESULTS: Fifty-seven articles, comprising 50 unique studies from 11 countries and two special autonomous regions, were included; 82% were conducted in trials. The implementation of self-collection was conducted in low- (2%), lower-middle- (32%), upper-middle- (32%), and high-income (35%) settings, with 10 different delivery models used; 80% delivered through practitioner-supported models with diversity in how samples were processed, and treatment was offered. Acceptability (73%) and appropriateness (64%) measures were most reported, followed by adoption (57%), feasibility (48%), and fidelity (38%). Only 7% of articles reported implementation cost or penetration measures. No articles reported sustainability measures. CONCLUSION: The literature confirms that self-collection cervical screening has been implemented within the Asia-Pacific region, with evidence demonstrating that it is acceptable and appropriate from the user's perspective. Well-designed, high-quality implementation trials and real-world evaluations of self-collection that report the breadth of implementation outcomes can support the progression toward the elimination of cervical cancer.

Recalibration of the Framingham risk score for predicting 10-year risk of cardiovascular events: A non-concurrent rural cohort study from Tamil Nadu.

OBJECTIVE: To recalibrate the Framingham Risk Score-cardiovascular diseases (FRS-CVD) using 10-year mortality data and baseline risk factor data for a rural cohort and assess the effect of recalibration on proportion categorised as high risk. METHODS: Participants of a cardiovascular risk factor survey aged 30-64 years in 2011-12, from 9 villages of a rural block in Vellore, Tamil Nadu, were followed up for mortality till 2021, as part of an established demographic surveillance system. We calculated both lipid-based and Body Mass Index-based FRS-CVD risk scores, as well as recalibrated scores using risk factor data from the baseline survey and CVD mortality observed over 10 years. RESULTS: Based on original lipid-based FRS-CVD scores, 8.48% (109) of 1285 males had a 10-year CVD risk ≥30%, compared to 11.60% (149) with recalibrated scores. Among 1737 females, 1.50% (26) had a 10-year CVD risk of ≥30%, using original FRS-CVD scores, and 3.22% (56) using recalibrated scores. Similarly, for BMI based FRS-CVD scores, overall, 3.63% (110/3028) had a 10-year risk of ≥30%, compared to 6.64% (201) using recalibrated scores. The median 10-year FRS-CVD original score in males was 7.57 (IQR: 3.67-15.83), and 2.53 (IQR: 1.28-5.32) in females, compared to 8.95 (IQR: 4.35-18.52) and 3.79 (IQR: 1.92-7.93) respectively, for the recalibrated FRS-CVD risk scores. CONCLUSION: The recalibrated Framingham models showed a greater proportion of the population at risk of CVDs compared to the original FRS scores, with males having 2-3 times greater CVD risk scores compared to females.

Screening practices for breast and cervical cancer and associated factors, among rural women in Vellore, Tamil Nadu.

BACKGROUND: Population-based screening coverage for breast and cervical cancer screening in the community is inadequately reported in India. This study assessed screening rates, awareness, and other factors affecting screening, among rural women aged 25-60 years in Vellore, Tamil Nadu. METHODS: Women aged 25-60 years, from five randomly selected villages of a rural block were included in this cross-sectional study in Vellore, Tamil Nadu. Households were selected by systematic random sampling, followed by simple random sampling of eligible women in the house. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to assess screening practices, awareness, and other factors related to cervical and breast cancer. RESULTS: Although 43.8% and 57.9% were aware of the availability of screening for cervical and breast cancer respectively, screening rates were only 23.4% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 18.4-28.4%) and 16.2% (95% CI: 11.9-20.5%), respectively. Adequate knowledge (score of ≥50%) on breast cancer was only 5.9%, with 27.2% for cervical cancer. Only 16.6% of women had ever attended any health education program on cancer. Exposure to health education (breast screening odds ratio [OR]: 6.89, 95% CI: 3.34-14.21; cervical screening OR: 6.92, 95% CI: 3.42-14.00); and adequate knowledge (breast OR: 4.69, 95% CI: 1.55-14.22; cervix OR: 3.01, 95% CI: 1.59-5.68) were independently associated with cancer screening. CONCLUSION: Awareness and screening rates for breast and cervical cancer are low among rural women in Tamil Nadu, a south Indian state with comparatively good health indices, with health education being an important factor associated with screening practices.

Prevalence of Airflow Obstruction as Measured by Spirometry, in Rural Southern Indian Adults.

Rural population-based estimates of airflow obstruction based on spirometry are unavailable from southern India. This study assessed the prevalence of spirometry-defined airflow obstruction in Vellore, Tamil Nadu.A cross sectional survey was done in nine villages, among adults aged ≥30 years, where previous cardiovascular surveys had been conducted (1994, 2011). Population proportional to size sampling was used to select 20 clusters, with sampling from all streets proportional to the number of households. One person randomly selected per household was interviewed for symptoms and risk factors. A respiratory therapist performed pre and post bronchodilator spirometry on all, following American Thoracic Society criteria. Airflow obstruction was defined as pre-bronchodilator Forced Expiratory Volume 1 s/Forced Vital Capacity (FEV1/FVC) < Lower Limit of Normal (LLN, derived from local prediction equations) and compared to other criteria.Of 1015 participants, 787 completed technically acceptable spirometry. The prevalence of airflow obstruction was 9.0% (95% CI: 5.8%-9.6%, 71). Fixed obstruction (post bronchodilator FEV1/FVC < LLN) was 4.6% (95% CI: 3.1%-6.1%, 36), and 4.1% (95% CI: 2.7%-5.5%, 32) using post bronchodilator FEV1/FVC < 70%. The GOLD criteria missed 56% (40) of those with airflow obstruction, of which 87.5% were females. Although 63.4% with airflow obstruction had moderate to severe disease, 82.2% were not on treatment and only 48.9% reported symptoms in the previous year.This study estimates prevalence of airflow obstruction based on spirometry in rural southern India. Despite significant impairment on spirometry, majority were undiagnosed, and half did not report symptoms.

Nutritional status, cognitive achievement, and educational attainment of children aged 8-11 in rural South India.

BACKGROUND: Malnutrition among children is one of the most pressing health concerns middle- and low-income countries face today, particularly those in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Early-life malnutrition has been shown to affect long-term health and income. One hypothesized channel linking early-life malnutrition and long-term outcomes is cognitive development. However, there is limited empirical evidence on the relationship between nutritional status and cognitive achievement in middle childhood. STUDY DESIGN: As part of the South India Community Health Study (SICHS), we collected educational attainment and anthropometric data from 1,194 children in rural Vellore district of Tamil Nadu, India, and assessed their math and reading skills. We analyzed the relationship between continuous and binary anthropometric measures of nutritional status and three measures of cognitive achievement (reading, math, and grade level), adjusting for potential confounders, using a regression framework. RESULTS: Lower height-for-age and weight-for-age and their corresponding binary measures (stunting, underweight) were associated with lower reading scores, lower math scores, and lower grade level, with the exception of the association between weight-for-age and reading, which was marginally significant. A stunted child had one-third of a grade disadvantage compared to a non-stunted counterpart, whereas an underweight child had one-fourth of a grade disadvantage compared to a non-underweight counterpart. Lower BMI-for-age was associated with grade level and marginally associated with lower math scores, and its binary measure (thinness) was marginally associated with lower math scores. CONCLUSIONS: Acute and chronic malnutrition in middle childhood were negatively associated with math scores, reading scores, and educational attainment. Our study provides new evidence that cognitive achievement during middle childhood could be an important mechanism underlying the association between early-life malnutrition and long-term wellbeing.

Performance of the Achutha Menon Centre Diabetes Risk Score in Identifying Prevalent Diabetes in Tamil Nadu, India.

BACKGROUND: The Achutha Menon Centre Diabetes Risk Score (AMCDRS), which was developed in rural Kerala State, South India, had not previously been externally validated. We examined the performance of the AMCDRS in urban and rural areas in the district of Vellore in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu, and compared it with other diabetes risk scores developed from India. METHODS: We used the data from 4,896 participants (30 to 64 years) of a cross-sectional study conducted in Vellore (2010 to 2012), to calculate the AMCDRS scores using age, family history, and waist circumference. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive values (NPV), and the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AROC) were calculated for undiagnosed and total diabetes. RESULTS: Of the 4,896 individuals surveyed, 274 (5.6%) had undiagnosed diabetes and 759 (15.5%) had total diabetes. The AMCDRS, with an optimum cut-point of ≥4, identified 45.0% for further testing with 59.5% sensitivity, 60.5% specificity, 9.1% PPV, 95.8% NPV, and an AROC of 0.639 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.608 to 0.670) for undiagnosed diabetes. The corresponding figures for total diabetes were 75.1%, 60.5%, 25.9%, 93.0%, and 0.731 (95% CI, 0.713 to 0.750), respectively. The AROC for the AMCDRS was not significantly different from that of the Indian Diabetes Risk Score, the Ramachandran or the Chaturvedi risk scores for total diabetes, but was significantly lower than the AROC of the Chaturvedi score for undiagnosed diabetes. CONCLUSION: The AMCDRS is a simple diabetes risk score that can be used to screen for undiagnosed and total diabetes in low-resource primary care settings in India. However, it probably requires recalibration to improve its performance for undiagnosed diabetes.

Prevalence of statin use among high-risk patients in urban and rural Vellore, Tamil Nadu: A population-based cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVES: This study assessed statin use among diabetics and those with coronary heart disease (CHD) in Vellore, Tamil Nadu. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was conducted in rural and urban Vellore, among 6196 participants (30-64 years), in 2010-2012. Statin use among those with known CHD and diabetes (on diabetic medication) was recorded. A randomly selected sample of rural diabetics was resurveyed in 2016 to reassess statin use. RESULTS: Among 61 with CHD, 23 (37.7%) were on statins. Statin use among 422 diabetics aged ≥40 years with low-density lipoprotein ≥70 mg/dl was 13.4% in urban and 7.6% among rural. Statin usage among rural diabetics aged ≥40 years increased from 7.7% in 2010-2012 to 16.6% in 2016. CONCLUSIONS: Statin use for CHD was below 50% although higher than the use among diabetics, indicating the need to address this low rate of usage among these high-risk groups.

Curriculum development for a module on noncommunicable diseases for the master of public health program.

BACKGROUND: As the burden of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) has been rising globally, various educational programs have introduced chronic disease epidemiology teaching, which is now a component of most of the Master of Public Health (MPH) programs. However, the process of curriculum development for these courses has not been adequately documented for use by educators planning such courses. METHODS: A detailed process of curriculum development based on David Kern's six-step approach was undertaken for a 2-week course on NCDs, as part of the MPH program of a tertiary institution in South India. The processes were documented so that the method of curriculum development for such a course could be made available for educators across this field. RESULTS: The course on NCDs was carried out over 73 learning hours (2 weeks) for a group of MPH students including medical, dental, allied health, and nursing graduates. Evaluation of the revised curriculum at the end of the 2 weeks revealed that mean scores for knowledge and confidence in skills increased by 50% (11.1-16.6, t-test, P < 0.001) and 79% (3.3-5.9, t-test, P = 0.002), respectively, from baseline scores. DISCUSSION: The revised curriculum was effective in improving knowledge and confidence in epidemiological skills. The documented process of curricular development using standard methods if made publicly available can be of use to those involved in planning similar educational programs for students of public health.

Chronic periodontitis among diabetics and nondiabetics aged 35-65 years, in a rural block in Vellore, Tamil Nadu: A cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Chronic periodontitis is a common cause of poor oral health globally. Those at higher risk of this preventable and easily treatable condition need to be identified so that efforts can be taken to decrease disease burden and subsequent consequences. AIMS: The aims of the study were (1) To compare the prevalence of chronic periodontitis among individuals with and without type 2 diabetes, aged 35-65 years from a rural block in Vellore, Tamil Nadu and (2) to assess risk factors for chronic periodontitis among individuals with diabetes. SETTINGS AND DESIGN: A cross-sectional study was done in nine villages of Kaniyambadi block, Vellore, between October 2015 and July 2016 among participants aged 35-65 years of a previous cross-sectional survey which had identified individuals with and without type 2 diabetes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Chronic periodontitis was assessed using the Community Periodontal Index and Treatment Needs index. Oral hygiene was assessed clinically using the Simplified Oral Hygiene Index. Diabetes was defined as on medication for type 2 diabetes or detected to have fasting blood glucose ≥126 mg/dl (in a previous survey). STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: Chi-square test and odds ratios (adjusted using logistic regression) were used to study risk factors for periodontitis among those with diabetes. RESULTS: Prevalence of chronic periodontitis was 45.9% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 40.88%-50.9%) among 98 individuals with diabetes and 35.6% (95% CI: 30.91-40.29%) among 104 individuals without diabetes. Poor oral hygiene (odds ratio: 8.33, 95% CI: 3.33-25.00), low socioeconomic status (odds ratio: 3.19, 95% CI: 1.00-10.12), and smoking (odds ratio: 3.51, 95% CI: 1.17-10.51) were associated with periodontitis among diabetics. CONCLUSIONS: Individuals with type 2 diabetes have a higher prevalence of periodontitis. As poor oral hygiene is a strong risk factor for periodontitis, there is a need for targeted education regarding dental hygiene to reduce this preventable condition.

Prevalence of coronary heart disease in rural and urban Vellore: A repeat cross-sectional survey.

BACKGROUND: With the increase of cardiovascular risk factors in India, the prevalence of coronary heart disease (CHD) is also expected to rise. A cross-sectional study in 2010-2012 assessed the prevalence and risk factors for CHD in urban and rural Vellore, Tamil Nadu. The secondary objectives were to compare the current prevalence with the prevalence of CHD in the same areas in 1991-1994. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was carried out among adults aged 30-64 years to determine the prevalence of CHD (previously diagnosed disease, symptoms detected using Rose angina questionnaire, or ischemic changes on electrocardiography). The study used the WHO STEPS method in addition to the Rose angina questionnaire and resting electrocardiography and was conducted in nine clusters of a rural block in Vellore district and 48 wards of Vellore town. The results were compared with a similar study in the same area in 1991-1994. RESULTS: The prevalence of CHD was 3.4% (95% CI: 1.6-5.2%) among rural men, 7.4% (95% CI: 4.7-10.1%) among rural women, 7.3% (95% CI: 5.7-8.9%) among urban men, and 13.4% (95% CI: 11.2-15.6%) among urban women in 2010-2012. The age-adjusted prevalence in rural women tripled and in urban women doubled, with only a slight increase among males, between 1991-1994 and 2010-2012. CONCLUSIONS: The large increase in prevalence of CHD, among both pre- and post-menopausal females, suggests the need for further confirmatory studies and interventions for prevention in both rural and urban areas.

Rising trend of cardiovascular risk factors between 1991-1994 and 2010-2012: A repeat cross sectional survey in urban and rural Vellore.

BACKGROUND: Repeat cross sectional surveys document the trend of prevalence rates for non-communicable diseases and their risk factors. In this study, we compare the prevalence rates for risk factors for cardiovascular disease in urban and rural Vellore between 1991-1994 and 2010-2012. METHODS: Cross sectional survey was carried out in 1991-1994 in a rural block in Vellore district and in Vellore town, to study the prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors among adults aged 30-60 years. A repeat survey was done in 2010-2012 using the WHO STEPS method. In both surveys, socio-demographic and behavioral history, physical measurements, biochemical measurements, and medical history were obtained. Age adjusted rates were used to compare the rates in the two surveys. RESULTS: In the rural areas, there was a three times increase in diabetes and body mass index (BMI) ≥25kg/m(2) (overweight/obese) with a doubling of the prevalence of hypertension. In urban areas there was a tripling of diabetes, doubling of proportion with BMI≥25kg/m(2) and 50% increase in prevalence of hypertension. While the proportion of male current smokers reduced by 50% in both rural and urban Vellore, lifetime abstainers to alcohol decreased in the rural area from 46.8% to 37.5% (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: There has been an alarming rise in diabetes, hypertension, and overweight/obese with an even greater increase in rural areas. Alcohol use is increasing while smoking is on the decline. Primary prevention programs are required urgently to stem the rising incidence of non-communicable diseases in India.

Prevalence of risk factors for non-communicable diseases in rural & urban Tamil Nadu.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES: Surveillance of risk factors is important to plan suitable control measures for non-communicable diseases (NCDs). The objective of this study was to assess the behavioural, physical and biochemical risk factors for NCDs in Vellore Corporation and Kaniyambadi, a rural block in Vellore district, Tamil Nadu, India. METHODS: This cross-sectional study was carried out among 6196 adults aged 30-64 yr, with 3799 participants from rural and 2397 from urban areas. The World Health Organization-STEPS method was used to record behavioural risk factors, anthropometry, blood pressure, fasting blood glucose and lipid profile. Multiple logistic regression was used to assess associations between risk factors. RESULTS: The proportion of tobacco users (current smoking or daily use of smokeless tobacco) was 23 per cent in the rural sample and 18 per cent in the urban, with rates of smoking being similar. Ever consumption of alcohol was 62 per cent among rural men and 42 per cent among urban men. Low physical activity was seen among 63 per cent of the urban and 43 per cent of the rural sample. Consumption of fruits and vegetables was equally poor in both. In the urban sample, 54 per cent were overweight, 29 per cent had hypertension and 24 per cent diabetes as compared to 31, 17 and 11 per cent, respectively, in the rural sample. Physical inactivity was associated with hypertension, body mass index (BMI) ≥25 kg/m[2], central obesity and dyslipidaemia after adjusting for other factors. Increasing age, male sex, BMI ≥25 kg/m[2] and central obesity were independently associated with both hypertension and diabetes. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSIONS: Diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidaemia, physical inactivity and overweight were higher in the urban area as compared to the rural area which had higher rates of smokeless tobacco use and alcohol consumption. Smoking and inadequate consumption of fruits and vegetables were equally prevalent in both the urban and rural samples. There is an urgent need to address behavioural risk factors such as smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity and inadequate intake of fruits and vegetables through primary prevention.

Dietary calcium intake and physical activity levels among urban South Indian postmenopausal women.

INTRODUCTION: Calcium is the most abundant mineral in our body with varied functions and its dietary deficiency leads to osteoporosis, besides playing a significant role in the pathogenesis of other diseases. The data regarding dietary calcium intake (DCI) among postmenopausal women in urban areas of South India is limited. OBJECTIVES: This study was aimed to assess DCI and physical activity among postmenopausal women. The risk factors for a low intake of dietary calcium were also assessed. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A cross-sectional study was done among 106 postmenopausal women selected by systematic random sampling from the city of Erode, Tamil Nadu, India. DCI and physical activity were measured using validated questionnaires. RESULTS: The mean DCI was 632.72 ± 28.23 mg/day. The proportion of women consuming less than 800 mg/day of dietary calcium was 74.5%. Only 10.4% of the women studied (11 out of 106) were on calcium supplements while 55% had low physical activity. A low knowledge score [adjusted odds ratio (OR): 5.17; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.31-20.42] and a low socioeconomic status (SES) score of the family (adjusted OR: 4.00; 95% CI: 1.32-12.11) were significantly associated with low DCI after adjusting the age, dietary preferences, and educational and occupational statuses. CONCLUSIONS: DCI was below the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) and the majority of postmenopausal women were physically inactive, indicating the need for better education regarding DCI and the need for calcium supplements and physical activity, all of which can contribute to the prevention of the consequences of osteoporosis.