Assessment of tuberculosis case notification rate: spatial mapping of hotspot, coverage and diagnostics in Katsina State, north-western Nigeria.

Tuberculosis (TB) is prevalent in Nigeria, and Katsina, along with other 12 states in the country, accounts for a high proportion of unnotified TB cases: constituting the high priority-intervention States in the country. Interventions focused on TB detection and coverage in the state could benefit from a better understanding of hotspot Local Government Areas (LGAs) that trigger and sustain the disease. Therefore, this study investigated the spatial distribution of TB Case Notification Rates (CNRs), diagnostics and coverage across the LGAs. Using 2017 to 2019 TB case finding data, the geocoordinates of diagnostic facilities and shapefiles, a retrospective ecological study was conducted. The data were analysed with QGIS and GeoDa. Moran's I and LISA were used to locate and quantify hotspots. The coverage of microscopy and GeneXpert facilities was assessed on QGIS using a 5 km and 20 km radius, respectively. The CNR in the state, and 29 of the 34 LGAs, increased steadily from 2017 to 2019. Hotspots of high CNRs were also identified in 2017 (Moran's I=0.106, p-value=0.090) and 2018 (Moran's I=-0.020, p-value=0.370). While CNRs increased along with presumptive TB rates across most LGAs over the years, the positivity yield and bacteriological and Xpert diagnostic rates decreased. Bacteriological and GeneXpert coverage were 78% and 49% respectively. Additionally, only 51% of the state's population lived within 20km of a GeneXpert facility. These results suggest that TB program interventions had some positive impact on the CNR, however, diagnostic facilities need to be equitably distributed and more innovative approaches need to be explored to find the missing cases.

Reducing unmet need for contraceptive services among youth in Homabay and Narok counties, Kenya: the role of community health volunteers - a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Access to contraceptive services is a cornerstone of human well-being. While Community Health Volunteers (CHVs) promote family planning in Kenya, the unmet need for contraceptives among youth remains high. CHVs seem to pay little specific attention to the contraceptive needs of the youth. METHODS: We conducted a qualitative study exploring the role of CHVs in increasing access and uptake of contraceptive services among youth aged 18-24 years in Narok and Homabay Counties, Kenya. We undertook 37 interviews and 15 focus group discussions involving CHVs, youth, community members, community leaders, youth leaders and health programme managers. Data were recorded, transcribed, translated, coded and thematically analysed, according to a framework that included community, CHV and health system-related factors. RESULTS: CHVs often operated in traditional contexts that challenge contraceptive use among unmarried female and male youth and young married couples. Yet many CHVs seemed to have overcome this potential 'barrier' as well as reigning misconceptions about contraceptives. While private and facility-based public contraceptive services were somehow available, CHVs were the preferred service provider for many youth due to ease of access and saving time and transport costs. This was influenced by varied perceptions among youth of CHVs' knowledge, skills and attitudes regarding contraceptives and provider-client interaction, and specifically their commitment to maintain confidentiality. CONCLUSIONS: CHVs have the potential to increase access to contraceptives for young people, reducing unmet need for contraceptives. Their knowledge, skills and attitudes need strengthening through training and supervision, while incentives to motivate them and broadening the range of contraceptives they are allowed to offer should be considered.

What factors do make quality improvement work in primary health care? Experiences of maternal health quality improvement teams in three Puskesmas in Indonesia.

BACKGROUND: Indonesia has been shifting from ensuring access to health services towards improving service quality. Accreditation has been used as quality assurance (QA) mechanism, first in hospitals and subsequently in primary health care facilities, including Puskesmas (community health centres). QA provides measures of whether services meet quality targets, but quality improvement (QI) is needed to make change and achieve improvements. QI is a cyclical process with cycles of problem identification, solution testing and observation. We investigated the factors which influenced the process of QI based on experience of maternal health QI teams in three Puskesmas in Cianjur district, West Java province, Indonesia. METHODS: Qualitative data were collected using 28 in-depth interviews at two points of time: pre- (April 2016) and post- QI intervention (April 2017), involving national, provincial, district and Puskesmas managers; and Puskesmas QI team members. Thematic analysis of transcripts was conducted. RESULTS: We found four main factors contributed to the process of QI: 1) leadership, including awareness and attitude of leader(s) towards QI, involvement of leader(s) in the QI process and decision-making in budget allocation for QI; 2) staff enthusiasm and multidisciplinary collaboration; 3) a culture where QI is integrated in existing responsibilities; and 4) the ongoing Puskesmas accreditation process, which increased the value of QI to the organisation. CONCLUSION: Making QI a success in the decentralised Indonesian system requires action at four levels. At individual level, leadership attributes can create an internal quality environment and drive organisational cultural change. At team level, staff enthusiasm and collaboration can be triggered through engaging and tasking everyone in the QI process and having a shared vision of what quality should look like. At organisational level, QI should be integrated in planned activities, ensuring financial and human resources. Lastly, QI can be encouraged when it is implemented by the wider health system as part of national accreditation programmes.

Salaried and voluntary community health workers: exploring how incentives and expectation gaps influence motivation.

BACKGROUND: The recent publication of the WHO guideline on support to optimise community health worker (CHW) programmes illustrates the renewed attention for the need to strengthen the performance of CHWs. Performance partly depends on motivation, which in turn is influenced by incentives. This paper aims to critically analyse the use of incentives and their link with improving CHW motivation. METHODS: We undertook a comparative analysis on the linkages between incentives and motivation based on existing datasets of qualitative studies in six countries. These studies had used a conceptual framework on factors influencing CHW performance, where motivational factors were defined as financial, material, non-material and intrinsic and had undertaken semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions with CHWs, supervisors, health managers and selected community members. RESULTS: We found that (a mix of) incentives influence motivation in a similar and sometimes different way across contexts. The mode of CHW engagement (employed vs. volunteering) influenced how various forms of incentives affect each other as well as motivation. Motivation was negatively influenced by incentive-related "expectation gaps", including lower than expected financial incentives, later than expected payments, fewer than expected material incentives and job enablers, and unequally distributed incentives across groups of CHWs. Furthermore, we found that incentives could cause friction for the interface role of CHWs between communities and the health sector. CONCLUSIONS: Whether CHWs are employed or engaged as volunteers has implications for the way incentives influence motivation. Intrinsic motivational factors are important to and experienced by both types of CHWs, yet for many salaried CHWs, they do not compensate for the demotivation derived from the perceived low level of financial reward. Overall, introducing and/or sustaining a form of financial incentive seems key towards strengthening CHW motivation. Adequate expectation management regarding financial and material incentives is essential to prevent frustration about expectation gaps or "broken promises", which negatively affect motivation. Consistently receiving the type and amount of incentives promised appears as important to sustain motivation as raising the absolute level of incentives.

Strengthening referral systems in community health programs: a qualitative study in two rural districts of Maputo Province, Mozambique.

BACKGROUND: Effective referral systems from the community to the health care facility are essential to save lives and ensure quality and a continuum of care. The effectiveness of referral systems in Mozambique depends on multiple factors that involve three main stakeholders: clients/community members; community health workers (CHWs); and facility-based health care workers. Each stakeholder is dependent on the other and could form either a barrier or a facilitator of referral within the complex health system of Mozambique. METHODS: This qualitative study, aiming to explore barriers and enablers of referral within the lens of complex adaptive health systems, employed 22 in-depth interviews with CHWs, their supervisors and community leaders and 8 focus group discussion with 63 community members. Interviews were recorded, transcribed and read for identification of themes and sub-themes related to barriers and enablers of client referrals. Data analysis was supported by the use of NVivo (v10). Results were summarized in narratives, reviewed, discussed and adjusted. RESULTS: All stakeholders acknowledged the centrality of the referral system in a continuum of quality care. CHWs and community members identified similar enablers and barriers to uptake of referral. A major common facilitator was the existence of referral slips to expedite treatment upon reaching the health facility. A common barrier was the failure for referred clients to receive preferential treatment at the facility, despite the presence of a referral slip. Long distances and opportunity and transport costs were presented as barriers to accessibility and affordability of referral services at the health facility level. Supervisors identified barriers related to use of referral data, rather than uptake of referral. Supervisors and CHWs perceived the lack of feedback as a barrier to a functional referral system. CONCLUSIONS: The barriers and enablers of referral systems shape both healthcare system functionality and community perceptions of care. Addressing common barriers to and strengthening the efficiency of referral systems have the potential to improve health at community level. Improved communication and feedback between involved stakeholders - especially strengthening the intermediate role of CHWs - and active community engagement will be key to stimulate better use of referral services and healthcare facilities.

How do gender relations affect the working lives of close to community health service providers? Empirical research, a review and conceptual framework.

Close-to-community (CTC) providers have been identified as a key cadre to progress universal health coverage and address inequities in health service provision due to their embedded position within communities. CTC providers both work within, and are subject to, the gender norms at community level but may also have the potential to alter them. This paper synthesises current evidence on gender and CTC providers and the services they deliver. This study uses a two-stage exploratory approach drawing upon qualitative research from the six countries (Bangladesh, Indonesia, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique) that were part of the REACHOUT consortium. This research took place from 2013 to 2014. This was followed by systematic review that took place from January-September 2017, using critical interpretive synthesis methodology. This review included 58 papers from the literature. The resulting findings from both stages informed the development of a conceptual framework. We present the holistic conceptual framework to show how gender roles and relations shape CTC provider experience at the individual, community, and health system levels. The evidence presented highlights the importance of safety and mobility at the community level. At the individual level, influence of family and intra-household dynamics are of importance. Important at the health systems level, are career progression and remuneration. We present suggestions for how the role of a CTC provider can, with the right support, be an empowering experience. Key priorities for policymakers to promote gender equity in this cadre include: safety and well-being, remuneration, and career progression opportunities. Gender roles and relations shape CTC provider experiences across multiple levels of the health system. To strengthen the equity and efficiency of CTC programmes gender dynamics should be considered by policymakers and implementers during both the conceptualisation and implementation of CTC programmes.

Performance of community health workers: situating their intermediary position within complex adaptive health systems.

Health systems are social institutions, in which health worker performance is shaped by transactional processes between different actors.This analytical assessment unravels the complex web of factors that influence the performance of community health workers (CHWs) in low- and middle-income countries. It examines their unique intermediary position between the communities they serve and actors in the health sector, and the complexity of the health systems in which they operate. The assessment combines evidence from the international literature on CHW programmes with research outcomes from the 5-year REACHOUT consortium, undertaking implementation research to improve CHW performance in six contexts (two in Asia and four in Africa). A conceptual framework on CHW performance, which explicitly conceptualizes the interface role of CHWs, is presented. Various categories of factors influencing CHW performance are distinguished in the framework: the context, the health system and intervention hardware and the health system and intervention software. Hardware elements of CHW interventions comprise the supervision systems, training, accountability and communication structures, incentives, supplies and logistics. Software elements relate to the ideas, interests, relationships, power, values and norms of the health system actors. They influence CHWs' feelings of connectedness, familiarity, self-fulfilment and serving the same goals and CHWs' perceptions of support received, respect, competence, honesty, fairness and recognition.The framework shines a spotlight on the need for programmes to pay more attention to ideas, interests, relationships, power, values and norms of CHWs, communities, health professionals and other actors in the health system, if CHW performance is to improve.

Optimising the benefits of community health workers' unique position between communities and the health sector: A comparative analysis of factors shaping relationships in four countries.

Community health workers (CHWs) have a unique position between communities and the health sector. The strength of CHWs' relationships with both sides influences their motivation and performance. This qualitative comparative study aimed at understanding similarities and differences in how relationships between CHWs, communities and the health sector were shaped in different Sub-Saharan African settings. The study demonstrates a complex interplay of influences on trust and CHWs' relationships with their communities and actors in the health sector. Mechanisms influencing relationships were feelings of (dis)connectedness, (un)familiarity and serving the same goals, and perceptions of received support, respect, competence, honesty, fairness and recognition. Sometimes, constrained relationships between CHWs and the health sector resulted in weaker relationships between CHWs and communities. The broader context (such as the socio-economic situation) and programme context (related to, for example, task-shifting, volunteering and supervision) in which these mechanisms took place were identified. Policy-makers and programme managers should take into account the broader context and could adjust CHW programmes so that they trigger mechanisms that generate trusting relationships between CHWs, communities and other actors in the health system. This can contribute to enabling CHWs to perform well and responding to the opportunities offered by their unique intermediary position.

Limits and opportunities to community health worker empowerment: A multi-country comparative study.

BACKGROUND: In LMICs, Community Health Workers (CHW) increasingly play health promotion related roles involving 'Empowerment of communities'. To be able to empower the communities they serve, we argue, it is essential that CHWs themselves be, and feel, empowered. We present here a critique of how diverse national CHW programs affect CHW's empowerment experience. METHODS: We present an analysis of findings from a systematic review of literature on CHW programs in LMICs and 6 country case studies (Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique). Lee & Koh's analytical framework (4 dimensions of empowerment: meaningfulness, competence, self-determination and impact), is used. RESULTS: CHW programs empower CHWs by providing CHWs, access to privileged medical knowledge, linking CHWs to the formal health system, and providing them an opportunity to do meaningful and impactful work. However, these empowering influences are constantly frustrated by - the sense of lack/absence of control over one's work environment, and the feelings of being unsupported, unappreciated, and undervalued. CHWs expressed feelings of powerlessness, and frustrations about how organisational processual and relational arrangements hindered them from achieving the desired impact. CONCLUSIONS: While increasingly the onus is on CHWs and CHW programs to solve the problem of health access, attention should be given to the experiences of CHWs themselves. CHW programs need to move beyond an instrumentalist approach to CHWs, and take a developmental and empowerment perspective when engaging with CHWs. CHW programs should systematically identify disempowering organisational arrangements and take steps to remedy these. Doing so will not only improve CHW performance, it will pave the way for CHWs to meet their potential as agents of social change, beyond perhaps their role as health promoters.

Exploring competing experiences and expectations of the revitalized community health worker programme in Mozambique: an equity analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Mozambique launched its revitalized community health programme in 2010 in response to inequitable coverage and quality of health services. The programme is focused on health promotion and disease prevention, with 20 % of community health workers' (known in Mozambique as Agentes Polivalentes Elementares (APEs)) time spent on curative services and 80 % on activities promoting health and preventing illness. We set out to conduct a health system and equity analysis, exploring experiences and expectations of APEs, community members and healthcare workers supervising APEs. METHODS: This exploratory qualitative study captured the perspectives of a range of participants including women caring for children under 5 years (service clients), community leaders, service providers (APEs) and their supervisors. Participants in the Moamba and Manhiça districts, located in Maputo Province (Mozambique), were selected purposively. In total, 29 in-depth interviews and 9 focus group discussions were conducted in the local language and/or Portuguese. A framework approach was used for analysis, assisted by NVivo10 software. RESULTS: Our analysis revealed that health equity is viewed as linked to the quality and coverage of the APE programme. Demand and supply factors interplay to shape health equity. The availability of responsive and appropriate services led to tensions between community expectations for curative services (and APEs' willingness to perform them) and official policy focusing APE efforts mainly on preventive services and health promotion. The demand for more curative services by community members is a result of having limited access to healthcare services other than those offered by APEs. CONCLUSION: This study highlights the need to pay attention to the determinants of demand and supply of community interventions in health, to understand the opportunities and challenges of the difficult interface role played by APEs and to create communication among stakeholders in order to build a stronger, more effective and equitable community programme.

Exploring the context in which different close-to-community sexual and reproductive health service providers operate in Bangladesh: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: A range of formal and informal close-to-community (CTC) health service providers operate in an increasingly urbanized Bangladesh. Informal CTC health service providers play a key role in Bangladesh's pluralistic health system, yet the reasons for their popularity and their interactions with formal providers and the community are poorly understood. This paper aims to understand the factors shaping poor urban and rural women's choice of service provider for their sexual and reproductive health (SRH)-related problems and the interrelationships between these providers and communities. Building this evidence base is important, as the number and range of CTC providers continue to expand in both urban slums and rural communities in Bangladesh. This has implications for policy and future programme interventions addressing the poor women's SRH needs. METHODS: Data was generated through 24 in-depth interviews with menstrual regulation clients, 12 focus group discussions with married men and women in communities and 24 semi-structured interviews with formal and informal CTC SRH service providers. Data was collected between July and September 2013 from three urban slums and one rural site in Dhaka and Sylhet, Bangladesh. Atlas.ti software was used to manage data analysis and coding, and a thematic analysis was undertaken. RESULTS: Poor women living in urban slums and rural areas visit a diverse range of CTC providers for SRH-related problems. Key factors influencing their choice of provider include the following: availability, accessibility, expenses and perceived quality of care, the latter being shaped by notions of trust, respect and familiarity. Informal providers are usually the first point of contact even for those clients who subsequently access SRH services from formal providers. Despite existing informal interactions between both types of providers and a shared understanding that this can be beneficial for clients, there is no effective link or partnership between these providers for referral, coordination and communication regarding SRH services. CONCLUSION: Training informal CTC providers and developing strategies to enable better links and coordination between this community-embedded cadre and the formal health sector has the potential to reduce service cost and improve availability of quality SRH (and other) care at the community level.

Supervision of community health workers in Mozambique: a qualitative study of factors influencing motivation and programme implementation.

BACKGROUND: Community health workers (CHWs) in Mozambique (known as Agentes Polivalentes Elementares (APEs)) are key actors in providing health services in rural communities. Supervision of CHWs has been shown to improve their work, although details of how it is implemented are scarce. In Mozambique, APE supervision structures and scope of work are clearly outlined in policy and rely on supervisors at the health facility of reference. The aim of this study was to understand how and which aspects of supervision impact on APE motivation and programme implementation. METHODS: Qualitative research methodologies were used. Twenty-nine in-depth interviews were conducted to capture experiences and perceptions of purposefully selected participants. These included APEs, health facility supervisors, district APE supervisors and community leaders. Interviews were recorded, translated and transcribed, prior to the development of a thematic framework. RESULTS: Supervision was structured as dictated by policy but in practice was irregular and infrequent, which participants identified as affecting APE's motivation. When it did occur, supervision was felt to focus more on fault-finding than being supportive in nature and did not address all areas of APE's work - factors that APEs identified as demotivating. Supervisors, in turn, felt unsupported and felt this negatively impacted performance. They had a high workload in health facilities, where they had multiple roles, including provision of health services, taking care of administrative issues and supervising APEs in communities. A lack of resources for supervision activities was identified, and supervisors felt caught up in administrative issues around APE allowances that they were unable to solve. Many supervisors were not trained in providing supportive supervision. Community governance and accountability mechanisms were only partially able to fill the gaps left by the supervision provided by the health system. CONCLUSION: The findings indicate the need for an improved supervision system to enhance support and motivation and ultimately performance of APEs. Our study found disconnections between the APE programme policy and its implementation, with gaps in skills, training and support of supervisors leading to sub-optimal supervision. Improved methods of supervision could be implemented including those that maximize the opportunities during face-to-face meetings and through community-monitoring mechanisms.

How does context influence performance of community health workers in low- and middle-income countries? Evidence from the literature.

BACKGROUND: Community health workers (CHWs) are increasingly recognized as an integral component of the health workforce needed to achieve public health goals in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Many factors intersect to influence CHW performance. A systematic review with a narrative analysis was conducted to identify contextual factors influencing performance of CHWs. METHODS: We searched six databases for quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods studies that included CHWs working in promotional, preventive or curative primary health care services in LMICs. We differentiated CHW performance outcome measures at two levels: CHW level and end-user level. Ninety-four studies met the inclusion criteria and were double read to extract data relevant to the context of CHW programmes. Thematic coding was conducted and evidence on five main categories of contextual factors influencing CHW performance was synthesized. RESULTS: Few studies had the influence of contextual factors on CHW performance as their primary research focus. Contextual factors related to community (most prominently), economy, environment, and health system policy and practice were found to influence CHW performance. Socio-cultural factors (including gender norms and values and disease related stigma), safety and security and education and knowledge level of the target group were community factors that influenced CHW performance. Existence of a CHW policy, human resource policy legislation related to CHWs and political commitment were found to be influencing factors within the health system policy context. Health system practice factors included health service functionality, human resources provisions, level of decision-making, costs of health services, and the governance and coordination structure. All contextual factors can interact to shape CHW performance and affect the performance of CHW interventions or programmes. CONCLUSIONS: Research on CHW programmes often does not capture or explicitly discuss the context in which CHW interventions take place. This synthesis situates and discusses the influence of context on CHW and programme performance. Future health policy and systems research should better address the complexity of contextual influences on programmes. This insight can help policy makers and programme managers to develop CHW interventions that adequately address and respond to context to optimise performance.

Which intervention design factors influence performance of community health workers in low- and middle-income countries? A systematic review.

Community health workers (CHWs) are increasingly recognized as an integral component of the health workforce needed to achieve public health goals in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Many factors influence CHW performance. A systematic review was conducted to identify intervention design related factors influencing performance of CHWs. We systematically searched six databases for quantitative and qualitative studies that included CHWs working in promotional, preventive or curative primary health services in LMICs. One hundred and forty studies met the inclusion criteria, were quality assessed and double read to extract data relevant to the design of CHW programmes. A preliminary framework containing factors influencing CHW performance and characteristics of CHW performance (such as motivation and competencies) guided the literature search and review.A mix of financial and non-financial incentives, predictable for the CHWs, was found to be an effective strategy to enhance performance, especially of those CHWs with multiple tasks. Performance-based financial incentives sometimes resulted in neglect of unpaid tasks. Intervention designs which involved frequent supervision and continuous training led to better CHW performance in certain settings. Supervision and training were often mentioned as facilitating factors, but few studies tested which approach worked best or how these were best implemented. Embedment of CHWs in community and health systems was found to diminish workload and increase CHW credibility. Clearly defined CHW roles and introduction of clear processes for communication among different levels of the health system could strengthen CHW performance.When designing community-based health programmes, factors that increased CHW performance in comparable settings should be taken into account. Additional intervention research to develop a better evidence base for the most effective training and supervision mechanisms and qualitative research to inform policymakers in development of CHW interventions are needed.

Es tiempo de actuar: La situación del VIH/SID en Nicaragua / It is tiempo to actuate the situation of HIV/AIDS in Nicaragua

El documento está estructurado en seis capítulos: El primer capítulo presenta la situación epidemilógica del VIH/SIDA en Nicaragua. En el segundo capítulo son tomados en consideración los diferentes factores socioculturales que influyen en el riesgo de adquirir el VIH. El tercer capítulo trata los diferentes comportamientos y prácticas de riesgo, que en parte son el resultado de los factores socioculturales mencionados. Los diferentes actores sociales e institucionales en la lucha contra el VIH/SIDA son discutidos en el cuarto capítulo.Finalemente se presentan las conclusiones y algunas recomendaciones.