Titanium dioxide nanoparticles promote oxidative stress, autophagy and reduce NLRP3 in primary rat astrocytes.

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2-NPs) are widely used in the food industry, cosmetics, personal care and paints among others. Through occupational exposure and daily consumption, and because of their small size, TiO2-NPs can enter the body through different routes such as oral, dermal and inhalation, and accumulate in multiple organs including the brain. TiO2-NPs cause severe damage to many cell types, however their effects in the central nervous system remain largely unexplored. Therefore, in the present study we determined the cytotoxic effect of TiO2-NPs on rat astrocytes. We tested the oxidant properties of TiO2-NPs through DTT depletion, and measured oxidative stress-induced damage in mitochondria, through oxidation of 2,7-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (H2DCFDA) and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) with Mitotracker Green FM. We further examined oxidative stress-derived responses such as IκB-α degradation by Western Blot, NF-κB translocation by EMSA, autophagy induction by LC3-II levels, and expression of the inflammasome protein NLRP3. TiO2-NPs showed high oxidant properties and induced strong oxidative stress in astrocytes following their internalization, causing mitochondrial damage detected by ΔΨm loss. Responses against oxidative damage such as NF-κB translocation and autophagy were induced and NLRP3 protein expression was downregulated, indicating lower inflammasome-mediated responses in astrocytes. These results support TiO2-NPs cytotoxicity in astrocytes, cells that play key roles in neuronal homeostasis and their dysfunction can lead to neurological disorders including cognitive impairment and memory loss.

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles induce strong oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage in glial cells.

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) are widely used in the chemical, electrical, and electronic industries. TiO2 NPs can enter directly into the brain through the olfactory bulb and can be deposited in the hippocampus region; therefore, we determined the toxic effect of TiO2 NPs on rat and human glial cells, C6 and U373, respectively. We evaluated some events related to oxidative stress: (1) redox-signaling mechanisms by oxidation of 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate; (2) peroxidation of lipids by cis-parinaric acid; (3) antioxidant enzyme expression by PCR in real time; and (4) mitochondrial damage by MitoTracker Green FM staining and Rh123. TiO2 NPs induced a strong oxidative stress in both glial cell lines by mediating changes in the cellular redox state and lipid peroxidation associated with a rise in the expression of glutathione peroxidase, catalase, and superoxide dismutase 2. TiO2 NPs also produced morphological changes, damage of mitochondria, and an increase in mitochondrial membrane potential, indicating toxicity. TiO2 NPs had a cytotoxic effect on glial cells; however, more in vitro and in vivo studies are required to ascertain that exposure to TiO2 NPs can cause brain injury and be hazardous to health.