Serological and molecular survey of Q fever in the dog population of the Campania region, southern Italy.

Q fever is a re-emerging zoonosis whose epidemiological cycle in ruminants is well defined, while the role of other species (including pets) is still debated. In this study, the serological and molecular prevalence of Coxiella burnetii in a sample of dogs in the Campania region, southern Italy was evaluated. A seroprevalence of 5.97 % (16/268) was observed using a commercial multispecies ELISA, compared to only 2.7 % (5/197) at the molecular level. No risk factors correlated with higher levels of exposure except for the size of the animal (small dogs showed significantly higher seroprevalence). Positive samples were further evaluated for reactivity to phase I and II antigens using IFA and phase-specific ELISAs (for specific IgG detection). Two animals showed antibodies against both phases of infection, suggesting that Coxiella burnetii seroconversion in dogs follows similar dynamics to those observed in ruminants. One of the five samples that showed positive results in real-time PCR was confirmed at the PCR endpoint and showed similarity with other Coxiella spp. strains detected in tick and dog samples when sequenced. In this study, we demonstrated exposure to Coxiella burnetii for different categories of dogs in southern Italy, including pet dogs living indoors. Since reports of transmission of infection from pets to humans have been described in both rural and urban areas, careful surveillance of these species is also necessary. In the lack of additional information, comprehending the risk to humans requires monitoring of wild and domestic animal populations.

Detection of anti-HEV antibodies but no molecular positivity in dogs in the Campania region, southern Italy.

Paslahepevirus balayani genotypes 3 and 4 (HEV-3 and 4) have zoonotic potential and can be transmitted to humans and animals through the consumption of contaminated raw or undercooked meat. Although it has been demonstrated that dogs are susceptible to the infection and produce specific antibodies, the epidemiological role of this species is not yet well defined. This study aimed to evaluate the circulation of HEV at the serological and molecular level in the dog population of the Campania region, southern Italy. A total of 231 dogs were sampled, divided according to several variables (sex, age, origin, lifestyle, location, size, and breed), and tested for the presence of HEV antibodies using a commercial multi-species ELISA. A total of 197 blood samples and 170 stool samples were tested with two specific PCRs in order to detect viral RNA. A total of 19 out samples of 231 were seropositive, obtaining an exposure (8.2%) similar to that observed in other European countries. The univariate and multivariate analysis revealed a wide exposure to stray dogs and animals from the province of Salerno. All samples tested with molecular methods were negative. Defining the role of domestic carnivores continues to be a "one health" challenge, although it appears that they do not eliminate the virus and therefore do not pose a danger to humans. In the absence of other evidence, it is advisable to continue to carry out surveillance also for domestic animals, which, due to ethological characteristics or their position in the food chain, could be predisposed to being exposed to HEV.

Viral and Antibody Prevalence of Hepatitis E in European Wild Boars (Sus scrofa) and Hunters at Zoonotic Risk in the Latium Region.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a member of the genus Hepevirus within the family Hepeviridae. Hepatitis E is recognized as a zoonosis, and swine and wild boars (Sus scrofa) are known reservoirs of HEV infection. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of HEV in wild boars and hunters exposed to infection in central Italy (Latium region). During the hunting season, blood samples were collected from 228 wild boars and 20 hunters. The seroprevalence of HEV infection was determined using a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, previously validated for use in man, pigs and wild boars. The estimated HEV seroprevalence in wild boars and in hunters was 40.7% (93/228; 95% confidence interval [CI] 34.4-47.1%) and 25% (5/20; 95% CI 6.1-43.9%), respectively. Liver samples were collected from the boars and HEV RNA was detected by nested reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction. Fifty-five of 164 tested wild boar liver samples (33.5%; 95% CI 26.2-40.7%) and three of 20 (15.0%; 95% CI 1.3-28.7%) tested human serum samples were positive for HEV RNA. Phylogenetic analysis of the nucleotide sequences obtained from PCR products indicated that the HEV strains present in wild boars and the human population all belonged to genotype 3, supporting the zoonotic role of wild boars in the spread of HEV infection.

Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of salmonella in European wild boar (Sus scrofa); Latium Region - Italy.

The prevalence of Salmonella spp. infection was determined in 499 wild boars harvested during the 2010-2011 and 2011-2012 hunting seasons in the Latium Region of Italy. We conducted a microbiological assessment on faeces collected at slaughter and we examined serum samples for the presence of antibodies to Salmonella spp. by ELISA assay. Out of 383 serum samples examined, 255 (66.5%) were positive for Salmonella spp. antibodies. Overall, 10.8% (54/499) of the animals were positive by microbiological assessment. The Salmonellae most frequently isolated were S. enterica subsp. salamae II (24%), S. enterica subsp. Diarizonae III b (12.9%), S. enterica subsp. houtenae IV (11.1%) and S. Fischerhuette (7.4%); less common Salmonella isolates included S. Veneziana (5.5%), S. Napoli (5.5%), S. Kottbus (5.5%), S. Thompson (5.5%), S. enterica subsp. arizonae III a (3.7%), S. Toulon (3.7%), S. Burgas (1.8%), S. Tennelhone (1.8%), S. Ferruch (1.8%), S. choleraesuis (1.8%), S. Paratyphi (1.8%), S. Stanleyville (1.8%), S. Typhimurium (1.8%) and S. enterica subsp. enterica 4,5,12:1:- (1.8%). These isolates were tested against 16 antimicrobial agents and exhibited resistance to sulphonamides (92.5%), sulphonamides and thrimetroprim (14.8%), colistin (14.8%), streptomycin (18.5%), gentamycin (5.5%), tetracycline (5.5%), ceftiofur (3.7%), cefazoline (1.8%), cefotaxime (1.8%), nalidixic acid (1.8%), amoxicillin and clavulanic acid (1.8%) and ampicillin (3.7%). Our data, the first collected on this species in Italy, suggest that European wild boars are frequent carriers of antimicrobial-resistant Salmonellae and are likely involved in the transmission of antimicrobial resistance throughout the environment.

Short communication: Detection of human Torque teno virus in the milk of water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis).

Forty-four raw milk and 15 serum samples from 44 healthy water buffaloes reared in Caserta, southern Italy, the most important region in Europe for buffalo breeding, were examined to evaluate the presence of Torque teno viruses (TTV) using molecular tools. Furthermore, 8 pooled pasteurized milk samples (from dairy factories having excellent sanitary conditions) and 6 Mozzarella cheese samples were also tested. Four of the cheese samples were commercial Mozzarella cheese; the remaining 2 were prepared with TTV-containing milk. Human TTV were detected and confirmed by sequencing in 7 samples of milk (approximately 16%). No TTV were found in serum, pooled pasteurized milk, or Mozzarella cheese samples. The samples of Mozzarella cheese prepared with TTV-containing milk did not show any presence of TTV, which provides evidence that standard methodological procedures to prepare Mozzarella cheese seem to affect viral structure, making this food fit for human consumption. The 7 TTV species from water buffaloes were identified as genotypes corresponding to the tth31 (3 cases), sle 1981, sle 2031, and NLC030 (2 cases each) human isolates. Although cross-species infection may occur, detection of TTV DNA in milk but not in serum led us to believe that its presence could be due to human contamination rather than a true infection. Finally, the mode of transmission of TTV has not been determined. Contaminated of the food chain with TTV may be a potential risk for human health, representing one of the multiple routes of infection.

Analysis of apoptosis induced by Caprine Herpesvirus 1 in vitro.

It is known that Caprine Herpesvirus 1 (CpHV-1) causes apoptosis in mitogen-stimulated as well as not stimulated caprine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Initial experiments in Madin Darby bovine kidney (MDBK) cells revealed that CpHV-1 infection induced apoptotic features like chromatin condensation and DNA laddering. Thus, to characterize in more detail this apoptotic process, activation of caspase-8, -9 and -3 in MDBK cells CpHV-1 infected was investigated and demonstrated. In addition, CpHV-1 infection resulted in disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential, cytochrome c release and alterations in the pro- and anti-apoptotic proteins of Bcl-2 family. Proteolytic cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARP), confirming the activation of downstream caspases, was also observed. Our data indicated that a "cross-talk" between the death-receptor (extrinsic) pathway and the mitochondrial (intrinsic) pathway occurred in CpHV-1-induced apoptosis in vitro.

Feline herpesvirus-1 down-regulates MHC class I expression in an homologous cell system.

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are an essential component of the immune defense against many virus infections. CTLs recognize viral peptides in the context of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules on the surface of infected cells. Many viruses have evolved mechanisms to interfere with MHC class I expression as a means of evading the host immune response. In the present research we have studied the effect of in vitro Feline Herpesvirus 1 (FeHV-1) infection on MHC class I expression. The results of this study demonstrate that FeHV-1 down regulates surface expression of MHC class I molecules on infected cells, presumably to evade cytotoxic T-cell recognition and, perhaps, attenuate induction of immunity. Sensitivity to UV irradiation and insensitivity to a viral DNA synthesis inhibitor, like phosphonacetic acid, revealed that immediate early or early viral gene(s) are responsible. Use of the protein translation inhibitor cycloheximide confirmed that an early gene is primarily responsible.

Evaluation of a fluorescence polarization assay for the detection of serum antibodies to Brucella abortus in water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis).

The fluorescence polarization assay (FPA) was evaluated for the serological diagnosis of brucellosis in water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in southern Italy. This assay uses O-polysaccharide prepared from Brucella abortus lipopolysaccharide conjugated with fluorescein isothiocyanate as a tracer. It has many methodological advantages over older, more established tests and can be performed in a fraction of the time. Sera from 890 buffalos from the Campania Region - 526 positive sera and 364 negative sera according to the complement fixation test (CFT) - were evaluated in this study. All samples were tested with the Rose Bengal test (RBT), CFT, and FPA in parallel and in blind fashion. Sensitivities (Sn) were 84.5% and 92.6%, and specificities (Sp) were 93.1% and 91.2% for RBT and FPA, respectively, relative to CFT. Finally, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis suggested a cut-off value of 117 millipolarization (mP) units. On the whole, these results suggested that FPA might replace RBT in the diagnosis of buffalo brucellosis for its better performance relative to CFT, its adjustable cut-off useful in different epidemiological situations, its reliability, ease of performance, and for its potential application in field and high-throughput laboratories.

Retrospective study of bacterial isolates and their antimicrobial susceptibilities in equine uteri during fertility problems.

Bacterial pathogens are a potential cause when a mare fails to conceive to a fertile stallion on a well-managed breeding farm on one or more cycles in the same season. Furthermore, emerging bacterial resistance to commonly used (topical) antibiotics has been demonstrated. In this study, a total of 586 uterine swabs from mares with fertility problems were evaluated and the bacterial isolates were identified and measured for resistance to 10 antibiotics most commonly used during bacterial equine infection. Forty-nine percent of the examined mares were positive at bacteriological investigations. Amongst 347 successful isolations, 31.7% were Streptococcus group C and 18.4% Escherichia (E.) coli, both considered frequently associated with fertility problems. Determination of the antibiotic susceptibility pattern of Streptococcus group C (110 organisms) revealed that only the amoxicillin/clavulanic acid was highly active with 82.7% of the isolates being inhibited. For E. coli, a major number of drugs displayed a high potency.

2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin increases Bovine Herpesvirus type-1 (BHV-1) replication in Madin-Darby Bovine Kidney (MDBK) cells in vitro.

Dioxin-2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) is a common environmental toxin of current interest. In the last years, higher levels of TCDD than those permitted in UE [European Commission. 2002. European Commission Recommendation 2002/201/CE. Official Gazette, L 67/69] were detected in milk samples from cow, water buffalo, goat, and sheep raised on some areas of Campania Region (South Italy). Dioxin often causes immunosuppression and might render the animal liable to viral infections. In addition, viral infections are able to alter the pattern of dioxin distribution in different organs of the exposed animals. Bovine Herpesvirus type-1 (BHV-1) is a widespread pathogen, which causes infectious rhinotracheitis and infectious pustular vulvovaginitis in cattle. Herein, we have studied the effects of TCDD and BHV-1 infection, in Madin-Darby Bovine Kidney (MDBK) cells, alone as well as in association, so as cellular proliferation, apoptosis, and virus replication. We have observed an increase in cell viability of confluent monolayers at low TCDD concentrations. TCDD treated cells demonstrated increased viability compared to controls as evaluated by MTT test. TCDD exposure increased cell proliferation but induced no changes on apoptosis. Cells exposed to TCDD along with BHV-1 showed a dose-dependent increase in cytopathy, represented by ample syncytia formation with the elimination of the cellular sheets and increased viral titer. These results suggest that TCDD increases viral replication in MDBK cells while BHV-1 further decreases viability of TCDD exposed cells. Since very low concentrations (0.01 pg/ml) are sufficient to augment BHV-1 titer, TCDD may contribute to reactivate BHV-1 from latency, leading to recurrent disease and increase virus transmission.

Antiapoptotic activity of bovine herpesvirus type-1 (BHV-1) UL14 protein.

Viruses have evolved different strategies to interfere with apoptotic pathways in order to halt cellular responses to infection. One previous study showed that transient transfection of bovine herpesvirus type-1 (BHV-1) UL14 protein is efficient in protecting Madin Darby kidney (MDBK) and human chronic myelogenous leukemia (K562) cells from sorbitol-induced apoptosis. This protein corresponds to a putative protein of BHV-1, which shares aminoacid sequence with a part of the peptide-binding domain conserved in human heat shock protein (HSP70) family. The pBK-CMV-UL14 plasmid transfected MDBK cells treated with sorbitol did not show caspase-3 and caspase-9 activation with respect to non-transfected MDBK cells (UL14 negative). Furthermore, we report that the expression of the full length sequence of BHV-1 UL14 is evident after 7 h of infection of BHV-1 on MDBK cells which were then treated with sorbitol. These results indicate that UL14 gene product has important implications to enhance cell survival in response to apoptotic stimuli.

Survey of Neospora caninum and bovine herpes virus 1 coinfection in cattle.

A seroprevalence survey of Neospora caninum and bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) was conducted in cattle pasturing in an area of the southern Italian Apennines to investigate the coinfection of these two pathogens. Blood samples were collected from 948 pastured cattle raised on 81 farms. Sera were tested for antibodies to N. caninum and to BHV-1 using an ELISA assay and a neutralization test, respectively. Out of the 81 farms sampled, 63 (77.8%) were positive for N. caninum and 80 (98.8%) for BHV-1. Coinfection was found in 62 (76.5%) farms. Out of the 948 bovine sera samples, 303 (32.0%) had antibodies to N. caninum and 735 (77.5%) to BHV-1. The copresence of antibodies to N. caninum and BHV-1 was found in 256 (27.0%) cattle. The logistic regression results indicated that seropositivity for BHV-1 was a risk factor for N. caninum seropositivity and seropositivity for N. caninum was a risk factor for BHV-1 seropositivity.

Bovine herpesvirus type 1 (BHV-1) up-regulates telomerase activity in MDBK cells.

The proliferative capacity of mammalian cells is regulated by telomerase, an enzyme uniquely specialised for telomeric DNA synthesis. The critical role of telomerase activation in tumor progression and maintenance has been well established in studies of cancer and of oncogenic transformation in cell culture. Experimental data suggest that telomerase activation has an important role in normal somatic cells, and that failure to activate sufficient telomerase also promotes disease. Evidence regarding the role of telomerase in the pathogenesis of several viruses including human immunodeficiency virus has led to an increased interest in the role of telomerase activity in other virus infections. In this research we evaluated the telomerase modulating activity of Bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) in MDBK cells. MDBK cells were infected at different multiplicity of infection with BHV-1 Cooper strain and telomerase activity at different times post-infection was measured by the TRAP assay. Our data indicate that BHV-1 significantly up-regulates telomerase activity at 3 and 6h post-infection decreasing after the 24h post-infection. Our data, showed that the effect was mediated by an immediate-early or early viral gene, and use of the protein translation inhibitor cycloheximide confirmed that an immediate early gene is primarily responsible.

Degenerate PCR method for identification of an antiapoptotic gene in BHV-1.

To investigate on the hypothetical presence of an antiapoptotic gene, we utilized the CODEHOP (COnsensus-DEgenerate Hybrid Oligonucleotide Primers) strategy amplifying unknown sequences from a background of genomic (bovine herpesvirus type-1) BHV-1 DNA. An alignment of carboxyl-terminal domains belonging to three proteins encoded by gamma34.5, MyD116 and GADD34 genes, was carried out to design degenerate PCR primers in highly conserved regions. This allowed the amplification of a 110 bp fragment. This fragment was subjected to automatic sequencing and DNA sequence analysis revealed that its position resided between the nt 14363 and the nt 14438 in bovine herpesvirus type-1 (BHV-1) Cooper strain sharing an identity of 86% (UL14). Transient transfections showed that UL14 protein is efficient in protecting MDBK and K562 cells from sorbitol induced apoptosis. The protein's anti-apoptotic function may derive from its heat shock protein-like properties.

Caprine herpesvirus-1 (CapHV-1) induces apoptosis in goat peripheral blood mononuclear cells.

Programmed cell death (PCD), or apoptosis, is initiated in response to various stimuli, including virus infection. A number of studies have shown that deregulation of apoptosis is an important feature of virus-induced immunosuppression for various viral diseases. In the present study, CapHV-1 was found to cause apoptosis in mitogen-stimulated as well as nonstimulated caprine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Apoptotic index, as quantified by fluorescent dyes, revealed a significant increase in the percentage of apoptotic cells at 24 and 48 h postinfection as compared to their respective noninfected controls. Apoptosis specific internucleosomal laddering in DNA from CapHV-1 infected PBMC was seen in agarose gel electrophoresis. No DNA fragmentation was observed in control noninfected PBMC. Virus-induced apoptosis was reduced by Z-VAD-FMK, an aspecific caspase inhibitor, by AC-DEVD-CHO (caspase-3-specific) and AC-VEID-CHO (caspase-6-specific) treatment. PCD in CapHV-1 infected peripheral blood mononuclear cells occurs at the G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle. However, penetration of virus particles and infection was not required for PCD, as UV-inactivated CapHV-1 induced apoptosis of mitogen-stimulated bovine peripheral blood mononuclear cells in vitro.

The involvement of oxidative stress in bovine herpesvirus type 4-mediated apoptosis.

Bovine herpesvirus type 4 (BHV-4) belongs to the gamma-2-herpesviruses of the Gammaherpesvirinae subfamily. BHV-4 has a worldwide distribution and has been isolated in a variety of clinical diseases as well as from healthy cattle. In this report we demonstrate that BHV-4 induces apoptosis in MDBK cells. In the early phases of apoptosis, cells show an increase in the intracellular level of reactive oxygen species, which is indicative of oxidative stress. This precedes DNA fragmentation, a hallmark typical of apoptosis. Cells were protected from apoptosis only by certain antioxidants (butylated hydroxyanisole and ebselen), whereas N-acetylcysteine turned out to be ineffective. Antioxidants that protected cells from apoptosis prevented oxidative stress but failed to block virus growth. These observations suggest that oxidative stress may be a crucial event in the sequence leading to apoptotic cell death but apoptosis is not required for the multiplication of BHV-4.

Interference of bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) in sorbitol-Induced apoptosis.

In order to determine the ability of bovine herpesvirus type 1 (BHV-1) to suppress apoptosis, we examined the effects of BHV-1 infection on sorbitol-induced apoptosis on Madin-Darby bovine kidney (MDBK) cells. BHV-1 suppresses sorbitol-induced apoptosis in a manner similar to that of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), indicating that BHV-1 has one or more anti-apoptotic genes. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms of apoptosis, expression of some genes encoding apoptosis-inhibiting and -promoting factors were analyzed on BHV-1 infected cells during the process of sorbitol-induced apoptosis. Our results revealed that the expression of bcl-2 and bcl-x(L) decreased after 5 and 3 h p.i., respectively; while bax and procaspase-3 expression increased with respect to control as a function of p.i. times and at 7 h p.i. they were not observed. We further show that the expression of p53 gene was also enhanced, suggesting that this apoptotic mechanism is p53 dependent. From these results, we propose that BHV-1 has one or more genes encoding apoptosis-inhibiting factors which interfere with the involvement of bcl-2 gene family members and apoptotic pathway, depending upon caspase-3, triggered by sorbitol.

Evaluation of buffalo colostrum quality by estimation of enzyme activity levels.

A study to evaluate the value and potential use of colostral enzymes as markers for the evaluation of buffalo colostrum quality was conducted. The enzymes gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT), lactic dehydrogenase (LDH), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) in buffalo's colostrum were measured spectrophotometrically, and their activities were correlated with the gamma-globulin content. Gamma-globulin concentration was determined following the electrophoretic separation of the colostral proteins and quantified with a densitometer. Colostrum was obtained from 15 dams, soon after calving. Means, standard deviations, correlation coefficients, and degree of significance were calculated using the general linear model procedure of the Statistical Analysis Systems program. The activity of GGT in the colostrum was the highest, followed by LDH and ALP. A significant correlation (r = 0.86; P < 0.001) was seen between GGT and gamma-globulin concentration in the colostrum, supporting the suggestion of using this enzyme as a marker for the evaluation of colostrum quality.