Comparison of the effect of three licorice varieties on cognitive improvement via an amelioration of neuroinflammation in lipopolysaccharide-induced mice.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Neuroinflammation plays critical role in neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). We investigated the effect of three licorice varieties, Glycyrhiza uralensis, G. glabra, and Shinwongam (SW) on a mouse model of inflammation-induced memory and cognitive deficit. MATERIALS/METHODS: C57BL/6 mice were injected with lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 2.5 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) and orally administrated G. uralensis, G. glabra, and SW extract (150 mg/kg/day). SW, a new species of licorice in Korea, was combined with G. uralensis and G. glabra. Behavioral tests, including the T-maze, novel object recognition and Morris water maze, were carried out to assess learning and memory. In addition, the expressions of inflammation-related proteins in brain tissue were measured by western blotting. RESULTS: There was a significant decrease in spatial and objective recognition memory in LPS-induced cognitive impairment group, as measured by the T-maze and novel object recognition test; however, the administration of licorice ameliorated these deficits. In addition, licorice-treated groups exhibited improved learning and memory ability in the Morris water maze. Furthermore, LPS-injected mice had up-regulated pro-inflammatory proteins, such as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2, interleukin-6, via activation of toll like receptor 4 (TLR4) and nuclear factor-kappa B (NFκB) pathways in the brain. However, these were attenuated by following administration of the three licorice varieties. Interestingly, the SW-administered group showed greater inhibition of iNOS and TLR4 when compared with the other licorice varieties. Furthermore, there was a significant increase in the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the brain of LPS-induced cognitively impaired mice that were administered licorice, with the greatest effect following SW treatment. CONCLUSIONS: The three licorice varieties ameliorated the inflammation-induced cognitive dysfunction by down-regulating inflammatory proteins and up-regulating BDNF. These results suggest that licorice, in particular SW, could be potential therapeutic agents against cognitive impairment.

Ginsenoside Re Promotes Osteoblast Differentiation in Mouse Osteoblast Precursor MC3T3-E1 Cells and a Zebrafish Model.

Bone homeostasis is tightly regulated to balance bone formation and bone resorption. Many anabolic drugs are used as bone-targeted therapeutic agents for the promotion of osteoblast-mediated bone formation or inhibition of osteoclast-mediated bone resorption. Previous studies showed that ginsenoside Re has the effect of the suppression of osteoclast differentiation in mouse bone-marrow derived macrophages and zebrafish. Herein, we investigated whether ginsenoside Re affects osteoblast differentiation and mineralization in in vitro and in vivo models. Mouse osteoblast precursor MC3T3-E1 cells were used to investigate cell viability, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, and mineralization. In addition, we examined osteoblastic signaling pathways. Ginsenoside Re affected ALP activity without cytotoxicity, and we also observed the stimulation of osteoblast differentiation through the activation of osteoblast markers including runt-related transcription factor 2, type 1 collagen, ALP, and osteocalcin in MC3T3-E1 cells. Moreover, Alizarin red S staining indicated that ginsenoside Re increased osteoblast mineralization in MC3T3-E1 cells and zebrafish scales compared to controls. These results suggest that ginsenoside Re promotes osteoblast differentiation as well as inhibits osteoclast differentiation, and it could be a potential therapeutic agent for bone diseases.

Neuroprotective effects of 20(S)-protopanaxadiol against glutamate-induced mitochondrial dysfunction in PC12 cells.

Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Mey.) is commonly used in traditional oriental medicine for its wide spectrum of medicinal properties, including anti-inflammatory, antitumorigenic, adaptogenic and anti-aging properties. 20(S)-Protopanaxadiol (PPD), the main intestinal metabolite of ginsenosides, is one of the active ingredients in ginseng. In this study, we aimed to investigate the neuroprotective effects of PPD on PC12 cells; however, the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. We examined cell viability by MTT assay and the morphological changes of PC12 cells following glutamate­induced cell damage and evaluated the anti­apoptotic effects of PPD using Hoechst 33258 staining, western blot analysis and Muse™ Cell Analyzer and the antioxidant effects of PPD using FACS analysis and immunofluorescence. Furthermore, PPD exerted protective effects on PC12 cells via the inhibition of mitochondrial damage against glutamate-induced excitotoxicity using immunofluorescence, electron microscopy and FACS analysis. We demonstrate that treatment with PPD suppresses apoptosis, which contributes to the neuroprotective effects of PPD against glutamate­induced excitotoxicity in PC12 cells. Treatment with PPD inhibited nuclear condensation and decreased the number of Annexin V-positive cells. In addition, PPD increased antioxidant activity and mitochondrial homeostasis in the glutamate-exposed cells. These antioxidant effects were responsible for the neuroprotection and enhanced mitochondrial function following treatment with PPD. Furthermore, PD inhibited the glutamate-induced morphological changes in the mitochondria and scavenged the mitochondrial and cytosolic reactive oxygen species (ROS) induced by glutamate. In addition, mitochondrial function was significantly improved in terms of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and enhanced mitochondrial mass compared with the cells exposed to glutamate and not treated with PPD. Taken together, the findings of our study indicate that the antioxidant effects and the enhanced mitochondrial function triggered by PPD contribute to the inhibition of apoptosis, thus leading to a neuroprotective response, as a novel survival mechanism.

Isolation and characterization of an oxidosqualene cyclase gene encoding a ß-amyrin synthase involved in Polygala tenuifolia Willd. saponin biosynthesis.

KEY MESSAGE: Expression of PtBS (Polygala tenuifolia ß-amyrin synthase) led to the production of ß-amyrin as sole product. ABSTRACT: Polygala tenuifolia Willdenow is a rich source of triterpene saponins, onjisaponins and polygalasaponins, used as herbal medicine to treat phlegms and for detumescence in traditional Asian healing. The Polygala saponins share the oleanane backbone structure and are, therefore, likely synthesized via ß-amyrin as a common precursor. We hypothesized that, in analogy to diverse other plant species, this central intermediate should be formed by a ß-amyrin synthase catalyzing the complex cyclization of oxidosqualene. This member of the oxidosqualene cyclase (OSC) family of enzymes is thus defining an important branch point between primary and secondary metabolisms, and playing a crucial role in the control of oleanane-type triterpene saponin biosynthesis. From P. tenuifolia roots, we isolated an OSC cDNA containing a reading frame of 2,289 bp nucleotides. The predicted protein of 763 amino acids (molecular weight 87.353 kDa) showed particularly high amino acid sequence identities to known ß-amyrin synthases (85-87 %) and was, therefore, named PtBS. Expression of PtBS in the triterpenoid synthase-deficient yeast mutant GIL77 led to the production of ß-amyrin as sole product. qRT-PCR analysis of various P. tenuifolia organs showed that PtBS transcript levels were highest in the roots, consistent with onjisaponin accumulation patterns. Therefore, we conclude that PtBS is the ß-amyrin synthase enzyme catalyzing the first committed step in the biosynthesis of onjisaponins and polygalasaponins in P. tenuifolia.