Ovine placental explants: A new ex vivo model to study host‒pathogen interactions in reproductive pathogens.

Reproductive failure is one of the main performance constraints in ruminant livestock. Transmissible agents such as Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum are commonly involved in the occurrence of abortion in ruminants, but little is known about the mechanisms involved. While in vivo models are optimal for the study of abortion pathogenesis, they have a high economic cost and come with ethical concerns. Unfortunately, alternative in vitro models fail to replicate the complex in vivo placental structure. To overcome the limitations of currently available models, we developed an ex vivo model based on the cultivation of fresh and cryopreserved sheep placental explants, enabling the biobanking of tissues. Reproducible and simple markers of tissue integrity (histology, RNA concentrations), viability (resazurin reduction), and functionality (synthesis of steroid hormones) were also investigated, allowing a clear quality assessment of the model. This work shows that, similar to fresh explants, tissues cryopreserved in ethylene glycol using slow freezing rates maintain not only their structure and function but also their receptivity to T. gondii and N. caninum infection. In addition, the findings demonstrate that explant lifespan is mainly limited by the culture method, with protocols requiring improvements to extend it beyond 2 days. These findings suggest that cryopreserved tissues can be exploited to study the initial host‒pathogen interactions taking place in the placenta, thus deepening the knowledge of the specific mechanisms that trigger reproductive failure in sheep. Importantly, this work paves the way for the development of similar models in related species and contributes to the reduction of experimental animal use in the future.

Whole-transcriptome analysis reveals virulence-specific pathogen-host interactions at the placenta in bovine neosporosis.

Research on bovine neosporosis has achieved relevant milestones, but the mechanisms underlying the occurrence of foetal death or protection against foetal death remain unclear. In a recent study, placentas from heifers challenged with the high-virulence isolate Nc-Spain7 exhibited focal necrosis and inflammatory infiltrates as soon as 10 days post-infection (dpi), although parasite detection was minimal. These lesions were more frequent at 20 dpi, coinciding with higher rates of parasite detection and the occurrence of foetal death in some animals. In contrast, such lesions were not observed in placentas from animals infected with the low-virulence isolate Nc-Spain1H, where the parasite was detected only in placenta from one animal at 20 dpi. This work aimed to study which mechanisms are triggered in the placentas (caruncles and cotyledons) of these pregnant heifers at early stages of infection (10 and 20 dpi) through whole-transcriptome analysis. In caruncles, infection with the high-virulence isolate provoked a strong proinflammatory response at 10 dpi. This effect was not observed in heifers infected with the low-virulence isolate, where IL-6/JAK/STAT3 signalling and TNF-alpha signalling via NF-κB pathways were down-regulated. Interestingly, the expression of E2F target genes, related to restraining the inflammatory response, was higher in these animals. At 20 dpi, more pronounced proinflammatory gene signatures were detectable in heifers infected with the high-virulence isolate, being more intense in heifers carrying dead fetuses. However, the low-virulence isolate continued without activating the proinflammatory response. In cotyledons, the response to infection with the high-virulence isolate was similar to that observed in caruncles; however, the low-virulence isolate induced mild proinflammatory signals at 20 dpi. Finally, a deconvolutional analysis of gene signatures from both placentome tissues revealed a markedly higher fraction of activated natural killers, M1 macrophages and CD8+ T cells for the high-virulence isolate. Therefore, our transcriptomic analysis supports the hypothesis that an intense immune response probably triggered by parasite multiplication could be a key contributor to abortion. Further studies are required to determine the parasite effectors that govern the distinct interactions of high- and low-virulence isolates with the host, which could help elucidate the molecular processes underlying the pathogenesis of neosporosis in cattle.

Characterization of Neospora caninum virulence factors NcGRA7 and NcROP40 in bovine target cells.

Bovine neosporosis is one of the major causes of reproductive failure in cattle worldwide, and differences in virulence between isolates have been widely shown. However, the molecular basis and mechanisms underlying virulence in Neospora caninum are mostly unknown. Recently, we demonstrated the involvement of NcGRA7 and NcROP40 in the virulence of N. caninum in a pregnant murine model using single knockout mutants in these genes generated by CRISR/Cas9 technology. In this study, the role of these proteins was investigated in two in vitro models using bovine target cells: trophoblast (F3 cell line) and monocyte-derived macrophages (BoMØ). The proliferation capacity of the single knockout mutant parasites was compared to the wild-type strain, the Nc-Spain7 isolate, using both cell populations. For the bovine trophoblast, no differences were observed in the growth of the defective parasites compared to the wild-type strain, neither in the proliferation kinetics nor in the competition assay. However, in naïve BoMØ, a significant decrease in the proliferation capacity of the mutant parasites was observed from 48 h pi onwards. Stimulation of BoMØ with IFN-γ showed a similar inhibition of tachyzoite growth in defective and wild-type strains in a dose-dependent manner. Finally, BoMØ infected with knockout parasites showed higher expression levels of TLR3, which is involved in pathogen recognition. These results suggest that NcGRA7 and NcROP40 may be involved in the manipulation of innate immune defense mechanisms against neosporosis and confirm the usefulness of the BoMØ model for the evaluation of N. caninum virulence mechanisms. However, the specific functions of these proteins remain unknown, opening the way for future research.

Transcriptional changes associated with apoptosis and type I IFN underlie the early interaction between Besnoitia besnoiti tachyzoites and monocyte-derived macrophages.

Besnoitia besnoiti-infected bulls may develop severe systemic clinical signs and orchitis that may ultimately cause sterility during the acute infection. Macrophages might play a relevant role in pathogenesis of the disease and the immune response raised against B. besnoiti infection. This study aimed to dissect the early interaction between B. besnoiti tachyzoites and primary bovine monocyte-derived macrophages in vitro. First, the B. besnoiti tachyzoite lytic cycle was characterized. Next, dual transcriptomic profiling of B. besnoiti tachyzoites and macrophages was conducted at early infection (4 and 8 h p.i.) by high-throughput RNA sequencing. Macrophages inoculated with heat-killed tachyzoites (MO-hkBb) and non-infected macrophages (MO) were used as controls. Besnoitia besnoiti was able to invade and proliferate in macrophages. Upon infection, macrophage activation was demonstrated by morphological and transcriptomic changes. Infected macrophages were smaller, round and lacked filopodial structures, which might be associated with a migratory phenotype demonstrated in other apicomplexan parasites. The number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) increased substantially during infection. In B. besnoiti-infected macrophages (MO-Bb), apoptosis and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways were regulated at 4 h p.i., and apoptosis was confirmed by TUNEL assay. The Herpes simplex virus 1 infection pathway was the only significantly enriched pathway in MO-Bb at 8 h p.i. Relevant DEGs of the Herpes simplex virus 1 infection (IFNα) and the apoptosis pathways (CHOP-2) were also significantly regulated in the testicular parenchyma of naturally infected bulls. Furthermore, the parasite transcriptomic analysis revealed DEGs mainly related to host cell invasion and metabolism. These results provide a deep overview of the earliest macrophage modulation by B. besnoiti that may favour parasite survival and proliferation in a specialized phagocytic immune cell. Putative parasite effectors were also identified.

NcGRA7 and NcROP40 Play a Role in the Virulence of Neospora caninum in a Pregnant Mouse Model.

The intraspecific variability among Neospora caninum isolates in their in vitro behaviour and in vivo virulence has been widely studied. In particular, transcriptomic and proteomic analyses have shown a higher expression/abundance of specific genes/proteins in high-virulence isolates. Consequently, the dense granule protein NcGRA7 and the rhoptry protein NcROP40 were proposed as potential virulence factors. The objective of this study was to characterize the role of these proteins using CRISPR/Cas9 knockout (KO) parasites in a well-established pregnant BALB/c mouse model of N. caninum infection at midgestation. The deletion of NcGRA7 and NcROP40 was associated with a reduction of virulence, as infected dams displayed milder clinical signs, lower parasite burdens in the brain, and reduced mortality rates compared to those infected with the wild-type parasite (Nc-Spain7). Specifically, those infected with the NcGRA7 KO parasites displayed significantly milder clinical signs and a lower brain parasite burden. The median survival time of the pups from dams infected with the two KO parasites was significantly increased, but differences in neonatal mortality rates were not detected. Overall, the present study indicates that the disruption of NcGRA7 considerably impairs virulence in mice, while the impact of NcROP40 deletion was more modest. Further research is needed to understand the role of these virulence factors during N. caninum infection.

Impact of Eimeria tenella Oocyst Dose on Parasite Replication, Lesion Score and Cytokine Transcription in the Caeca in Three Breeds of Commercial Layer Chickens.

Eimeria species parasites infect the gastrointestinal tract of chickens, causing disease and impacting on production. The poultry industry relies on anticoccidial drugs and live vaccines to control Eimeria and there is a need for novel, scalable alternatives. Understanding the outcomes of experimental infection in commercial chickens is valuable for assessment of novel interventions. We examined the impact of different infectious doses of Eimeria tenella (one low dose, three high doses) in three commercial layer chicken lines, evaluating lesion score, parasite replication and cytokine response in the caeca. Groups of eight to ten chickens were housed together and infected with 250, 4,000, 8,000 or 12,000 sporulated oocysts at 21 days of age. Five days post-infection caeca were assessed for lesions and to quantify parasite replication by qPCR and cytokine transcription by RT-qPCR. Comparison of the three high doses revealed no significant variation between them in observed lesions or parasite replication with all being significantly higher than the low dose infection. Transcription of IFN-γ and IL-10 increased in all infected chickens relative to unchallenged controls, with no significant differences associated with dose magnitude (p > 0.05). No significant differences were detected in lesion score, parasite replication or caecal cytokine expression between the three lines of chickens. We therefore propose 4,000 E. tenella oocysts is a sufficient dose to reliably induce lesions in commercial layer chickens, and that estimates of parasite replication can be derived by qPCR from these same birds. However, more accurate quantification of Eimeria replication requires a separate low dose challenge group. Optimisation of challenge dose in an appropriate chicken line is essential to maximize the value of in vivo efficacy studies. For coccidiosis, this approach can reduce the numbers of chickens required for statistically significant studies and reduce experimental severity.

Vaccination with transgenic Eimeria tenella expressing Eimeria maxima AMA1 and IMP1 confers partial protection against high-level E. maxima challenge in a broiler model of coccidiosis.

BACKGROUND: Poultry coccidiosis is a parasitic enteric disease with a highly negative impact on chicken production. In-feed chemoprophylaxis remains the primary method of control, but the increasing ineffectiveness of anticoccidial drugs, and potential future restrictions on their use has encouraged the use of commercial live vaccines. Availability of such formulations is constrained by their production, which relies on the use of live chickens. Several experimental approaches have been taken to explore ways to reduce the complexity and cost of current anticoccidial vaccines including the use of live vectors expressing relevant Eimeria proteins. We and others have shown that vaccination with transgenic Eimeria tenella parasites expressing Eimeria maxima Apical Membrane Antigen-1 or Immune Mapped Protein-1 (EmAMA1 and EmIMP1) partially reduces parasite replication after challenge with a low dose of E. maxima oocysts. In the present study, we have reassessed the efficacy of these experimental vaccines using commercial birds reared at high stocking densities and challenged with both low and high doses of E. maxima to evaluate how well they protect chickens against the negative impacts of disease on production parameters. METHODS: Populations of E. tenella parasites expressing EmAMA1 and EmIMP1 were obtained by nucleofection and propagated in chickens. Cobb500 broilers were immunised with increasing doses of transgenic oocysts and challenged two weeks later with E. maxima to quantify the effect of vaccination on parasite replication, local IFN-γ and IL-10 responses (300 oocysts), as well as impacts on intestinal lesions and body weight gain (10,000 oocysts). RESULTS: Vaccination of chickens with E. tenella expressing EmAMA1, or admixtures of E. tenella expressing EmAMA1 or EmIMP1, was safe and induced partial protection against challenge as measured by E. maxima replication and severity of pathology. Higher levels of protection were observed when both antigens were delivered and was associated with a partial modification of local immune responses against E. maxima, which we hypothesise resulted in more rapid immune recognition of the challenge parasites. CONCLUSIONS: This study offers prospects for future development of multivalent anticoccidial vaccines for commercial chickens. Efforts should now be focused on the discovery of additional antigens for incorporation into such vaccines.

Modeling the Ruminant Placenta-Pathogen Interactions in Apicomplexan Parasites: Current and Future Perspectives.

Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii are one of the main concerns of the livestock sector as they cause important economic losses in ruminants due to the reproductive failure. It is well-known that the interaction of these parasites with the placenta determines the course of infection, leading to fetal death or parasite transmission to the offspring. However, to advance the development of effective vaccines and treatments, there are still important gaps on knowledge on the placental host-parasite interactions that need to be addressed. Ruminant animal models are still an indispensable tool for providing a global view of the pathogenesis, lesions, and immune responses, but their utilization embraces important economic and ethics restrictions. Alternative in vitro systems based on caruncular and trophoblast cells, the key cellular components of placentomes, have emerged in the last years, but their use can only offer a partial view of the processes triggered after infection as they cannot mimic the complex placental architecture and neglect the activity of resident immune cells. These drawbacks could be solved using placental explants, broadly employed in human medicine, and able to preserve its cellular architecture and function. Despite the availability of such materials is constrained by their short shelf-life, the development of adequate cryopreservation protocols could expand their use for research purposes. Herein, we review and discuss existing (and potential) in vivo, in vitro, and ex vivo ruminant placental models that have proven useful to unravel the pathogenic mechanisms and the host immune responses responsible for fetal death (or protection) caused by neosporosis and toxoplasmosis.

Laboratory Growth and Genetic Manipulation of Eimeria tenella.

Eimeria is a genus of apicomplexan parasites that contains a large number of species, most of which are absolutely host-specific. Seven species have been recognized to infect chickens. Infection of susceptible chickens results in an intestinal disease called coccidiosis, characterized by mucoid or hemorrhagic enteritis, which is associated with impaired feed conversion or mortality in severe cases. Intensive farming practices have increased the significance of coccidiosis since parasite transmission is favored by high-density housing of large numbers of susceptible chickens. Routine chemoprophylaxis and/or vaccination with live parasite vaccines provides effective control of Eimeria, although the emergence of drug resistance and the relative cost and production capacity of current vaccine lines can prove limiting. As pressure to reduce drug use in livestock production intensifies, novel vaccination strategies are needed. Development of effective protocols supporting genetic complementation of Eimeria species has until recently been hampered by their inability to replicate efficiently in vitro. Now, the availability of such protocols has raised the prospect of generating transgenic parasite lines that function as vaccine vectors to express and deliver heterologous antigens. For example, this technology has the potential to streamline the production of live anticoccidial vaccines through the generation of parasite lines that co-express immunoprotective antigens derived from multiple Eimeria species. In this paper we describe detailed protocols for genetic manipulation, laboratory growth, and in vivo propagation of Eimeria tenella parasites, which will encourage future work from other researchers to expand biological understanding of Eimeria through reverse genetics. © 2019 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Development of cross-protective Eimeria-vectored vaccines based on apical membrane antigens.

Recently, the availability of protocols supporting genetic complementation of Eimeria has raised the prospect of generating transgenic parasite lines which can function as vaccine vectors, expressing and delivering heterologous proteins. Complementation with sequences encoding immunoprotective antigens from other Eimeria spp. offers an opportunity to reduce the complexity of species/strains in anticoccidial vaccines. Herein, we characterise and evaluate EtAMA1 and EtAMA2, two members of the apical membrane antigen (AMA) family of parasite surface proteins from Eimeria tenella. Both proteins are stage-regulated, and the sporozoite-specific EtAMA1 is effective at inducing partial protection against homologous challenge with E. tenella when used as a recombinant protein vaccine, whereas the merozoite-specific EtAMA2 is not. In order to test the ability of transgenic parasites to confer heterologous protection, E. tenella parasites were complemented with EmAMA1, the sporozoite-specific orthologue of EtAMA1 from E. maxima, coupled with different delivery signals to modify its trafficking and improve antigen exposure to the host immune system. Vaccination of chickens using these transgenic parasites conferred partial protection against E. maxima challenge, with levels of efficacy comparable to those obtained using recombinant protein or DNA vaccines. In the present work we provide evidence for the first known time of the ability of transgenic Eimeria to induce cross protection against different Eimeria spp. Genetically complemented Eimeria provide a powerful tool to streamline the complex multi-valent anticoccidial vaccine formulations that are currently available in the market by generating parasite lines expressing vaccine targets from multiple eimerian species.

Recombinant anticoccidial vaccines - a cup half full?

Eimeria species parasites can cause the disease coccidiosis, most notably in chickens. The occurrence of coccidiosis is currently controlled through a combination of good husbandry, chemoprophylaxis and/or live parasite vaccination; however, scalable, cost-effective subunit or recombinant vaccines are required. Many antigens have been proposed for use in novel anticoccidial vaccines, supported by the capacity to reduce disease severity or parasite replication, increase body weight gain in the face of challenge or improve feed conversion under experimental conditions, but none has reached commercial development. Nonetheless, the protection against challenge induced by some antigens has been within the lower range described for the ionophores against susceptible isolates or current live vaccines prior to oocyst recycling. With such levels of efficacy it may be that combinations of anticoccidial antigens already described are sufficient for development as novel multi-valent vaccines, pending identification of optimal delivery systems. Selection of the best antigens to be included in such vaccines can be informed by knowledge defining the natural occurrence of specific antigenic diversity, with relevance to the risk of immediate vaccine breakthrough, and the rate at which parasite genomes can evolve new diversity. For Eimeria, such data are now becoming available for antigens such as apical membrane antigen 1 (AMA1) and immune mapped protein 1 (IMP1) and more are anticipated as high-capacity, high-throughput sequencing technologies become increasingly accessible.

The tandemly repeated NTPase (NTPDase) from Neospora caninum is a canonical dense granule protein whose RNA expression, protein secretion and phosphorylation coincides with the tachyzoite egress.

BACKGROUND: NTPases (also NTPDases) are enzymes with apyrase activity. They are widely distributed among eukaryotes, and also among members of the family Sarcocystidae. In Toxoplasma gondii, the TgNTPase accumulates in the dense granules, and has been commonly associated with the strain virulence. In the closely related Neospora caninum, the NcNTPase lacks nucleoside diphosphate hydrolase activity and appears to be more abundant in virulent isolates, indicating that it may contribute to the pathogenicity of neosporosis. However, so far no additional information on NcNTPase has been provided. METHODS: Herein, the NcNTPase coding sequences were analysed by different in silico and de novo sequencing approaches. A comparative analysis of NcNTPase and NcGRA7 in terms of protein dynamics, secretion, phosphorylation, and mRNA expression profiles during the tachyzoite lytic cycle was also carried out. Moreover, NcNTPase immunolocalization was analysed by confocal microscopy techniques over a set number of time-points. RESULTS: We describe the presence of three different loci containing three copies of the NcNTPase within the Nc-Liv genome, and report the existence of up to four different NcNTPase alleles in Nc-Liv. We also provide evidence for the occurrence of diverse protein species of the NcNTPase by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. Both NcNTPase and NcGRA7 were similarly up-regulated and secreted during the egress and/or early invasion phases, and were phosphorylated. However, its secretion was not affected by the addition of calcium modulators such as A23187 and ethanol. NcNTPase and NcGRA7 localized in dense granules and parasitophorous vacuole membrane throughout the lytic cycle, although differed in their inmunolocalization during early invasion and egress. CONCLUSIONS: The present study reveals the complexity of the NcNTPase loci in N. caninum. We hypothesize that the expression of different isoforms of the NcNTPase protein could contribute to parasite virulence. Our findings showed regulation of expression, secretion and phosphorylation of NcNTPase suggesting a potential role for progression through the tachyzoites lytic cycle.

Characterization of the Neospora caninum NcROP40 and NcROP2Fam-1 rhoptry proteins during the tachyzoite lytic cycle.

Virulence factors from the ROP2-family have been extensively studied in Toxoplasma gondii, but in the closely related Neospora caninum only NcROP2Fam-1 has been partially characterized to date. NcROP40 is a member of this family and was found to be more abundantly expressed in virulent isolates. Both NcROP2Fam-1 and NcROP40 were evaluated as vaccine candidates and exerted a synergistic effect in terms of protection against vertical transmission in mouse models, which suggests that they may be relevant for parasite pathogenicity. NcROP40 is localized in the rhoptry bulbs of tachyzoites and bradyzoites, but in contrast to NcROP2Fam-1, the protein does not associate with the parasitophorous vacuole membrane due to the lack of arginine-rich amphipathic helix in its sequence. Similarly to NcROP2Fam-1, NcROP40 mRNA levels are highly increased during tachyzoite egress and invasion. However, NcROP40 up-regulation does not appear to be linked to the mechanisms triggering egress. In contrast to NcROP2Fam-1, phosphorylation of NcROP40 was not observed during egress. Besides, NcROP40 secretion into the host cell was not successfully detected by immunofluorescence techniques. These findings indicate that NcROP40 and NcROP2Fam-1 carry out different functions, and highlight the need to elucidate the role of NcROP40 within the lytic cycle and to explain its relative abundance in tachyzoites.

Neospora caninum tachyzoite immunome study reveals differences among three biologically different isolates.

Pathogenesis of bovine neosporosis is determined by different host- and parasite-dependent factors, including isolate virulence. A previous study identified that several Neospora caninum tachyzoite proteins were more abundant in virulent isolates, Nc-Liv and Nc-Spain7, compared with the low-virulent isolate Nc-Spain1H. Herein, we explored differences in the immunomes of these three isolates. Protein extracts from the Nc-Liv, Nc-Spain1H and Nc-Spain7 isolates were analysed in a 3×3 design by 2-DE immunoblot using sera from experimentally infected mice with these same three isolates. All isolates displayed a highly similar antigenic pattern when they were assessed using the same serum. Most of the reactive spots were located in the acidic region (pH 3-7) and grouped in 3 antigenic areas (250-70, 45-37 and 35-15 KDa). Differences found in the immunome depended on the sera used, regardless of the extract employed. In this sense, sera from Nc-Liv and Nc-Spain7 infected mice recognized the highest number of antigens, followed by Nc-Spain1H infected mice sera. In fact, 4 proteins identified by MS were not consistently detected in each isolate extract by sera from low-virulent Nc-Spain1H-infected mice: serine-threonine phosphatase 2C and superoxide dismutase (related to metabolism), gliding associated protein GAP45 (related to tachyzoites invasion), and NcGRA1 (located on dense granules). Similarly, 4 non-identified spots and another 2 spots chains located in 45-37 kDa area were not detected by this pooled sera. Variations between virulent Nc-Spain7 and Nc-Liv were limited to the absence of recognition by sera from Nc-Spain7-infected mice of GAP45 and the spot chains located in the 45-37 kDa area. These results suggest that variations in the immunome profiles rely on the immune response induced by each isolate and that these differentially recognized antigens could be investigated as putative virulence markers of neosporosis.

A vaccine formulation combining rhoptry proteins NcROP40 and NcROP2 improves pup survival in a pregnant mouse model of neosporosis.

Currently there are no effective vaccines for the control of bovine neosporosis. During the last years several subunit vaccines based on immunodominant antigens and other proteins involved in adhesion, invasion and intracellular proliferation of Neospora caninum have been evaluated as targets for vaccine development in experimental mouse infection models. Among them, the rhoptry antigen NcROP2 and the immunodominant NcGRA7 protein have been assessed with varying results. Recent studies have shown that another rhoptry component, NcROP40, and NcNTPase, a putative dense granule antigen, exhibit higher expression levels in tachyzoites of virulent N. caninum isolates, suggesting that these could be potential vaccine candidates to limit the effects of infection. In the present work, the safety and efficacy of these recombinant antigens formulated in Quil-A adjuvant as monovalent vaccines or pair-wise combinations (rNcROP40+rNcROP2 and rNcGRA7+rNcNTPase) were evaluated in a pregnant mouse model of neosporosis. All the vaccine formulations elicited a specific immune response against their respective native proteins after immunization. Mice vaccinated with rNcROP40 and rNcROP2 alone or in combination produced the highest levels of IFN-γ and exhibited low parasite burdens and low IgG antibody levels after the challenge. In addition, most of the vaccine formulations were able to increase the median survival time in the offspring. However, pup survival only ensued in the groups vaccinated with rNcROP40+rNcROP2 (16.2%) and rNcROP2 (6.3%). Interestingly, vertical transmission was not observed in those survivor pups immunized with rNcROP40+rNcROP2, as shown by PCR analyses. These results show a partial protection against N. caninum infection after vaccination with rNcROP40+rNcROP2, suggesting a synergistic effect of the two recombinant rhoptry antigens.

Serological diagnosis of bovine neosporosis: a comparative study of commercially available ELISA tests.

Bovine neosporosis control programs are currently based on herd management and serodiagnosis because effective treatments and vaccines are unavailable. Although a wide variety of serological tools have been developed, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) are the most commonly commercialized tests. Partial comparative studies have been performed in the past, and the panel of available ELISAs has notably changed in the last few years. Therefore, diagnostic laboratories are requesting updated information about the performance of these tests. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to compare all of the commercially available ELISAs (n=10) by evaluating their performance and to re-standardize them based on TG-ROC analyses when necessary. For this purpose, a well-characterized serum panel from experimentally and naturally infected bovines and non-infected bovines (n=458) was used. Two different definitions of gold standard were considered: (i) the result of the majority of tests and (ii) pre-test information based on epidemiological, clinical and serological data. Most of the tests displayed high sensitivity (Se) and specificity (Sp) values when both gold standard criteria were considered. Furthermore, all the tests showed near perfect agreement, with the exception of the pair-wise comparisons that included the VMRD and SVANOVIR. The best-adjusted ELISAs were the HIPRA-CIVTEST, IDVET, BIOVET and IDEXX Rum (Se and Sp>95%). After the TG-ROC analyses, higher Se and Sp values were obtained for the BIO-X, LSI Bov, LSI Rum and IDEXX Bov, though the increases were more significant for the SVANOVIR and VMRD. The Kappa values also increased with the new adjusted cut-offs. This is the first study that offers updated performance evaluations of commercially available ELISAs. Such analyses are essential for diagnostic laboratories and are valuable to the companies that develop and distribute these tests.

Proteome expression changes among virulent and attenuated Neospora caninum isolates.

Neospora caninum is a cyst-forming parasite that has been recognised worldwide as a cause of cattle abortion and neuromuscular disease in dogs. Variations in genetic profiles, behaviour in vitro, and pathogenicity have been established among N. caninum isolates. However, it is unclear which parasite factors are implicated in this intra-specific diversity. Comparative analysis of protein expression patterns may define the determinants of biological diversity in N. caninum. Using DIGE and MALDI-TOF MS techniques, we quantified and identified differentially expressed proteins in the tachyzoite stage across three N. caninum isolates: the virulent Nc-Liv and Nc-Spain 7 isolates, and the attenuated Nc-Spain 1H isolate. Comparison between Nc-Spain 7 and Nc-Spain 1H extracts revealed 39 protein spots that were more abundant in Nc-Spain 7 and 21 in Nc-Spain 1H. Twenty-four spots were also increased in Nc-Spain 7 and 12 in Nc-Liv. Three protein spots were more abundant in the Nc-Liv extracts than in the Nc-Spain 1H extracts. MS analysis identified 11 proteins differentially expressed that are potentially involved in gliding motility and the lytic cycle of the parasite, and oxidative stress. These differences could help to explain variations in behaviour between isolates and provide a better knowledge of mechanisms associated with virulence.