The independent and combined effects of aerobic exercise intensity and dose differentially increase post-exercise cerebral shear stress and blood flow.

This research examined the impact of aerobic exercise intensity and dose on acute post-exercise cerebral shear stress and blood flow. Fourteen young adults (27 ± 5 years of age, eight females) completed a maximal oxygen uptake ( V ̇ O 2 max ${{\dot{V}}_{{{{\mathrm{O}}}_2}\max }}$ ) treadmill test followed by three randomized study visits: treadmill exercise at 30% of V ̇ O 2 max ${{\dot{V}}_{{{{\mathrm{O}}}_2}\max }}$ for 30 min, 70% of V ̇ O 2 max ${{\dot{V}}_{{{{\mathrm{O}}}_2}\max }}$ for 30 min and 70% of V ̇ O 2 max ${{\dot{V}}_{{{{\mathrm{O}}}_2}\max }}$ for a duration that resulted in caloric expenditure equal to that in the 30% V ̇ O 2 max ${{\dot{V}}_{{{{\mathrm{O}}}_2}\max }}$ visit (EqEE). A venous blood draw and internal carotid artery (ICA) ultrasound were collected before and immediately following exercise. ICA diameter and blood velocity were determined using automated edge detection software, and blood flow was calculated. Using measures of blood viscosity, shear stress was calculated. Aerobic exercise increased ICA shear stress (time: P = 0.005, condition: P = 0.012) and the increase was greater following exercise at 70% V ̇ O 2 max ${{\dot{V}}_{{{{\mathrm{O}}}_2}\max }}$ (∆4.1 ± 3.5 dyn/cm2) compared with 30% V ̇ O 2 max ${{\dot{V}}_{{{{\mathrm{O}}}_2}\max }}$ (∆1.1 ± 1.9 dyn/cm2; P = 0.041). ICA blood flow remained elevated following exercise (time: P = 0.002, condition: P = 0.010) with greater increases after 70% V ̇ O 2 max ${{\dot{V}}_{{{{\mathrm{O}}}_2}\max }}$ (Δ268 ± 150 mL/min) compared with 30% V ̇ O 2 max ${{\dot{V}}_{{{{\mathrm{O}}}_2}\max }}$ (∆125 ± 149 mL/min; P = 0.041) or 70% V ̇ O 2 max ${{\dot{V}}_{{{{\mathrm{O}}}_2}\max }}$ EqEE (∆127 ± 177 mL/min; P = 0.004). Therefore, aerobic exercise resulted in both intensity- and dose-dependent effects on acute post-exercise ICA blood flow whereby vigorous intensity exercise provoked a larger increase in ICA blood flow compared to light intensity exercise when performed at a higher dose.

Cerebral hemodynamics comparison using transcranial doppler ultrasound and 4D flow MRI.

Introduction: Age-related changes in cerebral hemodynamics are controversial and discrepancies may be due to experimental techniques. As such, the purpose of this study was to compare cerebral hemodynamics measurements of the middle cerebral artery (MCA) between transcranial Doppler ultrasound (TCD) and four-dimensional flow MRI (4D flow MRI). Methods: Twenty young (25 ± 3 years) and 19 older (62 ± 6 years) participants underwent two randomized study visits to evaluate hemodynamics at baseline (normocapnia) and in response to stepped hypercapnia (4% CO2, and 6% CO2) using TCD and 4D flow MRI. Cerebral hemodynamic measures included MCA velocity, MCA flow, cerebral pulsatility index (PI) and cerebrovascular reactivity to hypercapnia. MCA flow was only assessed using 4D flow MRI. Results: MCA velocity between the TCD and 4D flow MRI methods was positively correlated across the normocapnia and hypercapnia conditions (r = 0.262; p = 0.004). Additionally, cerebral PI was significantly correlated between TCD and 4D flow MRI across the conditions (r = 0.236; p = 0.010). However, there was no significant association between MCA velocity using TCD and MCA flow using 4D flow MRI across the conditions (r = 0.079; p = 0.397). When age-associated differences in cerebrovascular reactivity using conductance were compared using both methodologies, cerebrovascular reactivity was greater in young adults compared to older adults when using 4D flow MRI (2.11 ± 1.68 mL/min/mmHg/mmHg vs. 0.78 ± 1.68 mL/min/mmHg/mmHg; p = 0.019), but not with TCD (0.88 ± 1.01 cm/s/mmHg/mmHg vs. 0.68 ± 0.94 cm/s/mmHg/mmHg; p = 0.513). Conclusion: Our results demonstrated good agreement between the methods at measuring MCA velocity during normocapnia and in response to hypercapnia, but MCA velocity and MCA flow were not related. In addition, measurements using 4D flow MRI revealed effects of aging on cerebral hemodynamics that were not apparent using TCD.

Association between serum prostacyclin and cerebrovascular reactivity in healthy young and older adults.

NEW FINDINGS: What is the central question of this study? What is the relationship between prostacyclin and cerebrovascular reactivity to hypercapnia before and after administration of a cyclooxygenase inhibitor, indomethacin, in healthy young and older adults? What is the main finding and importance? Serum prostacyclin was not related to cerebrovascular reactivity to hypercapnia before or after administration of indomethacin. However, in older adults, serum prostacyclin was related to the magnitude of change in cerebrovascular reactivity from before to after indomethacin administration. This suggests that older adults with higher serum prostacyclin may rely more on cyclooxygenase products to mediate cerebrovascular reactivity. ABSTRACT: Platelet activation may contribute to age-related cerebrovascular dysfunction by interacting with the endothelial cells that regulate the response to vasodilatory stimuli. This study evaluated the relationship between a platelet inhibitor, prostacyclin, and cerebrovascular reactivity (CVR) in healthy young (n = 35; 25 ± 4 years; 17 women, 18 men) and older (n = 12; 62 ± 2 years; 8 women, 4 men) adults, who were not daily aspirin users, before and after cyclooxygenase inhibition. Prostacyclin was determined by levels of 6-keto-prostaglandin F1α (6-keto PGF1α) in the blood. CVR was assessed by measuring the middle cerebral artery blood velocity response to hypercapnia using transcranial Doppler ultrasound before (CON) and 90 min after cyclooxygenase inhibition with indomethacin (INDO). In young adults, there were no associations between prostacyclin and middle cerebral artery CVR during CON (r = -0.14, P = 0.415) or INDO (r = 0.27, P = 0.118). In older adults, associations between prostacyclin and middle cerebral artery CVR during CON (r = 0.53, P = 0.075) or INDO (r = -0.45, P = 0.136) did not reach the threshold for significance. We also evaluated the relationship between prostacyclin and the change in CVR between conditions (ΔCVR). We found no association between ΔCVR and prostacyclin in young adults (r = 0.27, P = 0.110); however, in older adults, those with higher baseline prostacyclin levels demonstrated significantly greater ΔCVR (r = -0.74, P = 0.005). In conclusion, older adults with higher serum prostacyclin, a platelet inhibitor, may rely more on cyclooxygenase products for cerebrovascular reactivity to hypercapnia.

Age at natural menopause impacts cerebrovascular reactivity and brain structure.

Menopause is associated with adverse changes in vascular health coinciding with an increased risk of stroke and vascular cognitive impairment. However, there is significant variation in the age at menopause. The present study examined how the age at natural menopause impacts cerebrovascular reactivity and structural biomarkers of brain aging. Thirty-five healthy postmenopausal women were classified as early-onset menopause (Early; n = 19, age at menopause: 47 ± 2 yr) or later-onset menopause (Late; n = 16, age at menopause: 55 ± 2 yr). Middle cerebral artery blood velocity (MCAv), mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), and end-tidal carbon dioxide (ETCO2) were recorded during a stepped hypercapnia protocol. Reactivity was calculated as the slope of the relationship between ETCO2 and each variable of interest. Brain volumes and white matter hyperintensities (WMHs) were obtained with 3T MRI. Resting MAP was greater in the Early group (99 ± 9 mmHg) compared with the Late group (90 ± 12 mmHg; P = 0.02). Cerebrovascular reactivity, assessed using MCAv, was blunted in the Early group (1.87 ± 0.92 cm/s/mmHg) compared with the Late group (2.37 ± 0.75 cm/s/mmHg; P = 0.02). Total brain volume did not differ between groups (Early: 1.08 ± 0.07 L vs. Late: 1.07 ± 0.06 L; P = 0.66), but the Early group demonstrated greater WMH fraction compared with the Late group (Early: 0.36 ± 0.14% vs. Late: 0.25 ± 0.14%; P = 0.02). These results suggest that age at natural menopause impacts cerebrovascular function and WMH burden in healthy postmenopausal women.

Sympathoexcitatory Responses to Isometric Handgrip Exercise Are Associated With White Matter Hyperintensities in Middle-Aged and Older Adults.

Vascular dysfunction may occur prior to declines in cognitive function and accumulation of neuropathology. White matter hyperintensities (WMH) develop due to cerebral ischemia and elevated blood pressure in midlife. The purpose of this study was to evaluate associations between cardiovascular and cerebrovascular responses to sympathoexcitatory stimuli and WMH burden in cognitively unimpaired middle-aged and older adults. Sixty-eight adults (age = 63 ± 4y, men = 20, women = 48) participated in this study. Participants completed isometric handgrip exercise (IHG) exercise at 40% of maximal voluntary contraction until fatigue followed by a 90s period of post-exercise ischemia. Heart rate (HR), mean arterial pressure (MAP), middle cerebral artery blood velocity (MCAv), and end-tidal CO2 were continuously measured throughout the protocol. Cerebrovascular resistance index (CVRi) was calculated as MAP/MCAv. WMH lesion volume and intracranial volume (ICV) were measured using a FLAIR and T1 scan on a 3T MRI scanner, respectively. WMH fraction was calculated as (WMH lesion volume/ICV)*100 and cubic root transformed. Multiple linear regressions were used to determine the association between cardiovascular and cerebrovascular responses to IHG exercise and post-exercise ischemia and WMH fraction. Multiple linear regression models were adjusted for age, sex, apolipoprotein ε4 status, and total work performed during IHG exercise. During IHG exercise, there were significant increases from baseline in HR (25 ± 12%), MAP (27 ± 11%), MCAv (5 ± 10%), and CVRi (22 ± 17%; P < 0.001 for all). During post-exercise ischemia, HR (8 ± 7%), MAP (22 ± 9%), and CVRi (23 ± 16%) remained elevated (P < 0.001) while MCAv (0 ± 10%) was not different compared to baseline. There was an inverse association between the percent change in HR (r = -0.42, P = 0.002), MAP (r = -0.41, P = 0.002), and CVRi (r = -0.31, P = 0.045), but not MCAv (r = 0.19, P = 0.971) in response to IHG exercise and WMH fraction. There were no associations between responses to post-exercise ischemia and WMH fraction. Lower sympathoexcitatory responses to IHG exercise are associated with greater WMH burden in middle-aged to older adults. These findings suggest that individuals who demonstrate smaller increases in HR, MAP, and CVRi in response to sympathoexcitatory stress have greater WMH burden.

The Impact of Aging on the Association Between Aortic Stiffness and Cerebral Pulsatility Index.

The central arteries dampen the pulsatile forces from myocardial contraction, limiting the pulsatility that reaches the cerebral vasculature, although there are limited data on this relationship with aging in humans. The purpose of this study was to determine the association between aortic stiffness and cerebral artery pulsatility index in young and older adults. We hypothesized that cerebral pulsatility index would be associated with aortic stiffness in older adults, but not in young adults. We also hypothesized that both age and aortic stiffness would be significant predictors for cerebral pulsatility index. This study included 23 healthy older adults (aged 62 ± 6 years) and 33 healthy young adults (aged 25 ± 4 years). Aortic stiffness was measured using carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (cfPWV), while cerebral artery pulsatility index in the internal carotid arteries (ICAs), middle cerebral arteries (MCAs), and basilar artery were assessed using 4D Flow MRI. Cerebral pulsatility index was calculated as (maximum flow - minimum flow) / mean flow. In the combined age group, there was a positive association between cfPWV and cerebral pulsatility index in the ICAs (r = 0.487; p < 0.001), MCAs (r = 0.393; p = 0.003), and basilar artery (r = 0.576; p < 0.001). In young adults, there were no associations between cfPWV and cerebral pulsatility index in any of the arteries of interest (ICAs: r = 0.253; p = 0.156, MCAs: r = -0.059; p = 0.743, basilar artery r = 0.171; p = 0.344). In contrast, in older adults there was a positive association between cfPWV and cerebral pulsatility index in the MCAs (r = 0.437; p = 0.037) and basilar artery (r = 0.500; p = 0.015). However, the relationship between cfPWV and cerebral pulsatility index in the ICAs of the older adults did not reach the threshold for significance (r = 0.375; p = 0.078). In conclusion, age and aortic stiffness are significant predictors of cerebral artery pulsatility index in healthy adults. This study highlights the importance of targeting aortic stiffness in our increasingly aging population to reduce the burden of age-related changes in cerebral hemodynamics.

Impact of age and cyclooxygenase inhibition on the hemodynamic response to acute cognitive challenges.

Structural and functional changes in the cerebral vasculature occur with advancing age, which may lead to impaired neurovascular coupling (NVC) and cognitive decline. Cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibition abolishes age-related differences in cerebrovascular reactivity, but it is unclear if COX inhibition impacts NVC. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of aging on NVC before and after COX inhibition. Twenty-three young (age = 25 ± 4 yr) and 21 older (age = 64 ± 5 yr) adults completed two levels of difficulty of the Stroop and n-back tests before and after COX inhibition. Middle cerebral artery blood velocity (MCAv) was measured using transcranial Doppler ultrasound and mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) was measured using a finger cuff. Hemodynamic variables were measured at rest and in response to cognitive challenges. During the Stroop test, older adults demonstrated a greater increase in MCAv (young: 2.2 ± 6.8% vs. older: 5.9 ± 5.8%; P = 0.030) and MAP (young: 2.0 ± 4.9% vs. older: 4.8 ± 4.9%; P = 0.036) compared with young adults. There were no age-related differences during the n-back test. COX inhibition reduced MCAv by 30% in young and 26% in older adults (P < 0.001 for both). During COX inhibition, there were no age-related differences in the percent change in MCAv or MAP in response to the cognitive tests. Our results show that older adults require greater increases in MCAv and MAP during a test of executive function compared with young adults and that any age-related differences in NVC were abolished during COX inhibition. Collectively, this suggests that aging is associated with greater NVC necessary to accomplish a cognitive task.

Exercise, Arterial Stiffness, and Cerebral Vascular Function: Potential Impact on Brain Health.

Exercise is associated with higher cognitive function and is a promising intervention to reduce the risk of dementia. With advancing age, there are changes in the vasculature that have important clinical implications for brain health and cognition. Primary aging and vascular risk factors are associated with increases in arterial stiffness and pulse pressure, and reductions in peripheral vascular function. OBJECTIVE: The purpose is to discuss the epidemiological, observational, and mechanistic evidence regarding the link between age-related changes in vascular health and brain health. METHODS: We performed a literature review and integrated with our published data. RESULTS: Epidemiological evidence suggests a link between age-related increases in arterial stiffness and lower cognitive function, which may be mediated by cerebral vascular function, including cerebral vasoreactivity and cerebral pulsatility. Age-associated impairments in central arterial stiffness and peripheral vascular function have been attenuated or reversed through lifestyle behaviors such as exercise. Greater volumes of habitual exercise and higher cardiorespiratory fitness are associated with beneficial effects on both peripheral vascular health and cognition. Yet, the extent to which exercise directly influences cerebral vascular function and brain health, as well as the associated mechanisms remains unclear. CONCLUSION: Although there is evidence that exercise positively impacts cerebral vascular function, more research is necessary in humans to optimize experimental protocols and address methodological limitations and physiological considerations. Understanding the impact of exercise on cerebral vascular function is important for understanding the association between exercise and brain health and may inform future intervention studies that seek to improve cognition.

Pharmacokinetics of bilirubin-10-sulfonate and biliverdin in the rat.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Biliverdin (BV) administration induces antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, with previous reports also identifying anti-anaphylactic potential. Interestingly however, intra-duodenal administration of BV in rats leads to the formation of bilirubin-10-sulfonate (BRS), which might be responsible for BV's purported effects. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: This study aimed to assess the intravenous, intraperitoneal and intraduodenal pharmacokinetics of BRS and BV in order to assess their therapeutic potential in future studies. Bile and venous blood were intermittently collected before and after administration, which was subsequently analysed using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry for quantification of bile pigment concentrations. KEY RESULTS: Interestingly, i.p. BRS administration led to a greater circulating concentration and had a reduced excretion rate, which resulted in a substantially elevated AUC180 when compared to BV administration. Furthermore, BRS was excreted intact in the bile, in contrast to BV which was excreted after chemical reduction and conjugation. Intraperitoneal and intraduodenal administration substantially increased blood BRS concentrations (p<0.05), however, the bioavailability of BV was higher than BRS following i.p. administration (i.p. BV 28.4%, BRS 15.5%) but lower following i.d. administration (i.d. BV 0.04%, BRS 0.07%), over 180 minutes. When BRS was administered i.v., BRS had a significantly (p<0.05) longer distribution (191.9 vs 54.1 minutes) half-life compared to BV, and significantly reduced (p<0.05) volume of distribution (0.026 vs 0.145 L kg-1). As a consequence, intraperitoneal and intraduodenal administration resulted in significantly greater blood concentrations of BRS (p<0.05) over 180 minutes. Therefore, BRS may be more likely to induce antioxidant or molecular effects, when compared to BV, due to greater concentrations and a longer half-life. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Cumulatively, these data demonstrate that BRS has a superior pharmacokinetic profile when compared to BV, which is a result of its resistance to hepatic metabolism and excretion. These data therefore provide a basis to explore the capacity of BRS to protect from inflammatory pathology.

Biliverdin and bilirubin sulfonate inhibit monosodium urate induced sterile inflammation in the rat.

BACKGROUND: Biliverdin, a by-product of haem catabolism, possesses potent endogenous antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Bilirubin-C10-sulfonate (BRS), an active metabolite formed after enteral administration of BV in the rat, also possess antioxidant properties. Therefore, we investigated the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity of BV and BRS in an in vivo model of monosodium urate induced sterile inflammation. METHODS: Subcutaneous air pouches were created on the dorsal flanks of Wistar rats (10-12 weeks of age). Prior to stimulation of the 6-day old pouch with monosodium urate (25 mg), groups were pre-treated with intraperitoneal BRS (27 mg/kg) and BV (27 mg/kg). Total and differential leukocyte counts were determined in pouch fluid aspirate at 1, 6, 12, 24 and 48 h after monosodium urate stimulation. Biliverdin (BV), BRS and unconjugated bilirubin (UCB) concentrations in the serum and pouch fluid were quantified using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Pouch fluid cytokine concentrations (IL-1ß, IL-1α, TNF-α, IL-17A, IL-12, GM-CSF, IL-33, IFN-γ, IL-18, IL-10, MCP-1, CXCL-1 and IL-6) were assessed after 6 h. In addition, 24 h protein carbonyl and chloramine concentrations were assessed in pouch fluid using ELISA and spectrophotometry, respectively. RESULTS: BRS and BV significantly (p < 0.05) inhibited leukocyte (total, neutrophil and macrophage) infiltration into the pouch fluid from 6 to 48 h. For example, after 6 h neutrophil counts decreased following BRS (0.32 ± 0.11 × 106 cells mL-1) and BV (0.17 ± 0.03 × 106 cells mL-1) compared to MSU only (3.51 ± 1.07 × 106 cells mL-1). Both BV and BRS significantly (p < 0.05) reduced pouch GM-CSF (BV: 5.8 ± 1.2 pg mL-1, BRS: 6.9 ± 1.5 pg mL-1 vs MSU only: 13.0 ± 1.9 pg mL-1) and MCP-1 concentrations at 6 h (BV: 1804 ± 269 pg mL-1, BRS: 7927 ± 2668 pg mL-1 vs MSU only: 17,290 ± 4503 pg ml-1), whilst BV additionally inhibited IL-6 (4354 ± 977 pg mL-1 vs MSU only: 25,070 ± 5178 pg mL-1) and IL-18 (17.6 ± 2.0 pg mL-1 vs MSU only: 81.5 ± 19.9 pg mL-1) concentrations at 6 h (p < 0.05). Despite these differences, no change in pouch chloramine or protein carbonyl concentrations occurred at 24 h (p > 0.05). Serum BV concentrations rapidly diminished over 6 h, however, BRS was readily detected in the serum over 48 h, and in pouch fluid over 12 h. CONCLUSIONS: This study is the first to elucidate anti-inflammatory activity of BRS and the efficacy of BV administration in a model of gouty inflammation. Reduced leukocyte infiltration and cytokine production in response to sterile inflammation further support the importance of these molecules in physiology and their therapeutic potential in sterile inflammation.

Unprecedented Microbial Conversion of Biliverdin into Bilirubin-10-sulfonate.

Biliverdin (BV) possesses antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, with previous reports identifying protection against oxidant and inflammatory injury in animal models. Recent reports indicate that intra-duodenal administration of BV results in the formation of an uncharacterised metabolite, which is potently absorbed into the blood and excreted into the bile. This compound may be responsible for protection against inflammatory responses. This study aimed to identify novel, enterally-derived BV metabolites and determine the source of their metabolic transformation. Rat duodena and bacterial cultures of Citrobacter youngae were treated with BV and subsequently analysed via high performance liquid chromatography/high resolution tandem mass spectrometry to identify and characterise metabolites of BV. A highly abundant metabolite was detected in duodenal wash and bacterial culture supernatants with a 663.215 m/z (3 ppm mass accuracy) and a composition of C33N4O9H36S, which conformed to the predicted structure of bilirubin-10-sulfonate (BRS) and possessed a λmax of 440 nm. Bilirubin-10-sulfonate was then synthesized for comparative LCMS/MS analysis and matched with that of the biologically formed BV metabolite. This report confirms the formation of a previously undocumented metabolite of BV in mammals, indicating that a new metabolic pathway likely exists for BV metabolism requiring enteric bacteria, Citrobacter youngae. These data may have important implications with regard to understanding and harnessing the therapeutic efficacy of oral BV administration.

Investigation into the feasibility of thioditaloside as a novel scaffold for galectin-3-specific inhibitors.

Galectin-3 is extensively involved in metabolic and disease processes, such as cancer metastasis, thus giving impetus for the design of specific inhibitors targeting this ß-galactose-binding protein. Thiodigalactoside (TDG) presents a scaffold for construction of galectin inhibitors, and its inhibition of galectin-1 has already demonstrated beneficial effects as an adjuvant with vaccine immunotherapy, thereby improving the survival outcome of tumour-challenged mice. A novel approach--replacing galactose with its C2 epimer, talose--offers an alternative framework, as extensions at C2 permit exploitation of a galectin-3-specific binding groove, thereby facilitating the design of selective inhibitors. We report the synthesis of thioditaloside (TDT) and crystal structures of the galectin-3 carbohydrate recognition domain in complexes with TDT and TDG. The different abilities of galactose and talose to anchor to the protein correlate with molecular dynamics studies, likely explaining the relative disaccharide binding affinities. The feasibility of a TDT scaffold to enable access to a particular galectin-3 binding groove and the need for modifications to optimise such a scaffold for use in the design of potent and selective inhibitors are assessed.

Synthesis of a novel pentasaccharide core component from the lipooligosaccharide of Moraxella catarrhalis.

The novel pentasaccharide [p-(trifluoroacetamido)phenyl]ethyl 3-O-ß-D-glucopyranosyl-4-O-ß-D-glucopyranosyl-6-O-[2-O-(α-D-glucopyranosyl)-ß-D-glucopyranosyl]-α-D-glucopyranoside (1), which includes a linker moiety to enable facile coupling to an antigenic protein, was synthesised as a component of a potential vaccine candidate against the Gram-negative bacterium Moraxella catarrhalis. This microorganism is one of three principal causative agents of otitis media in children. The pentasaccharide represents a common cross-serotype (A, B and C) structure from the lipooligosaccharides of Moraxella catarrhalis.

Synthesis of simple heparanase substrates.

Heparanase degrades heparan sulfate (HS) chains on proteoglycans; elevated levels of heparanase expression correlate with tumour cell metastatic potential and vascularity, and reduced post-operative survival of cancer patients. Consequently, heparanase expression is considered a biomarker for cancer detection. Although several heparanase assays have been developed, most require the preparation of heterogeneous, (radio)labelled HS substrates and rely on the separation of enzymatically-degraded products on the basis of molecular size. In studies directed towards the development of a more direct heparanase assay, a series of glucuronides and glycosyl glucuronides were synthesised as putative heparanase substrates. These compounds were designed with various aryl aglycones that could be measured spectrophotometrically upon hydrolysis of the glycosidic linkage by heparanase. It was found that the N-sulfated 4-nitrophenyl glycosyl glucuronide 24 and the N-sulfated methylumbelliferyl glycosyl glucuronide 26 were hydrolysed by recombinant human heparanase. These compounds represent the simplest substrates of heparanase reported to date.

Towards the synthesis of aryl glucuronides as potential heparanase probes. An interesting outcome in the glycosidation of glucuronic acid with 4-hydroxycinnamic acid.

This work describes our preliminary efforts towards the development of aryl glucuronides as potential probes for heparanase. During the course of these initial investigations, attempted glycosidation of methyl 2,3,4-tri-O-acetyl-alpha-D-glucopyranosyluronate trichloroacetimidate with 4-hydroxycinnamic acid gave a complex mixture of four different components. These were identified as the 1-cinnamyl glucuronate ester 13, the cinnamyl linked disaccharide 14, the glucuronate trichloroacetamide 15, and the glucuronyl alpha-fluoride 16. This paper rationalises the formation of each of these products, and reports our efforts in trying to optimise the formation of the alpha-fluoride 16.

Crystal structure of P450cin in a complex with its substrate, 1,8-cineole, a close structural homologue to D-camphor, the substrate for P450cam.

Cytochrome P450cin catalyzes the monooxygenation of 1,8-cineole, which is structurally very similar to d-camphor, the substrate for the most thoroughly investigated cytochrome P450, cytochrome P450cam. Both 1,8-cineole and d-camphor are C(10) monoterpenes containing a single oxygen atom with very similar molecular volumes. The cytochrome P450cin-substrate complex crystal structure has been solved to 1.7 A resolution and compared with that of cytochrome P450cam. Despite the similarity in substrates, the active site of cytochrome P450cin is substantially different from that of cytochrome P450cam in that the B' helix, essential for substrate binding in many cytochrome P450s including cytochrome P450cam, is replaced by an ordered loop that results in substantial changes in active site topography. In addition, cytochrome P450cin does not have the conserved threonine, Thr252 in cytochrome P450cam, which is generally considered as an integral part of the proton shuttle machinery required for oxygen activation. Instead, the analogous residue in cytochrome P450cin is Asn242, which provides the only direct protein H-bonding interaction with the substrate. Cytochrome P450cin uses a flavodoxin-like redox partner to reduce the heme iron rather than the more traditional ferredoxin-like Fe(2)S(2) redox partner used by cytochrome P450cam and many other bacterial P450s. It thus might be expected that the redox partner docking site of cytochrome P450cin would resemble that of cytochrome P450BM3, which also uses a flavodoxin-like redox partner. Nevertheless, the putative docking site topography more closely resembles cytochrome P450cam than cytochrome P450BM3.