A comparison of inversion test holding methods for broilers.

Objective, robust, and repeatable assessments of fear responses of poultry can lead to improvements in research techniques, the validity of test results, and ultimately bird welfare. The objective of this study was to examine the effect of 2 different holding methods on broiler fear responses during the inversion test, a standardized method of assessing fear in poultry. On D15 and D34 mixed-sex broilers (N = 80) were inverted and held either by their shanks (N = 40) or feet (N = 40) at arm's length away from the experimenter for 30 s. The frequency of wing flapping, head movement, attempts to right, and vocalizations were observed from video recordings collected during the inversion test. Vocalizations at D15 and D34 were not different when comparing holding methods. Frequency of attempts to right and wing flapping at D15 were greater (P < 0.001) for birds held by their feet (0.90 and 16.6, respectively) than when they were held by their shanks (0.20 and 0.73, respectively). Similarly, on D34 wing flapping remained greater (P < 0.001) for birds held by their feet (23.8) compared to their shanks (8.1). Conversely, head movements were greater (P = 0.05) for birds held by their shanks (9.2) compared to their feet (6.3) on D15. Within both the shank and feet holding method, vocalizations at D15 were greater (30.7 and 35.6, respectively) compared to D34 (11.93 and 15.38, respectively) (P < 0.001). There was no holding method effect on head movements within each age. These results suggest that behaviors observed during the inversion test can be influenced by the inversion holding method and that handling should be standardized while conducting behavioral tests to assess fear in poultry.

Small fiber neuropathy in the chronic phase of Chagas disease: a case report.

We describe the occurrence of small fiber neuropathy in a patient affected by Chagas disease in the indeterminate phase. After the exclusion of all the possible etiologies of small fiber neuropathy, the disorder was considered related to Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Although a peripheral involvement has been described in Chagas disease, this is the first report of a selective involvement of small fibers.

Clinical utility of electrophysiological evaluation in Crigler-Najjar syndrome.

We evaluated the neurological and neurophysiological features in ten patients with genetically characterized Crigler-Najjar (CN) syndrome: four with typical type I CN had undergone orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT); six had type II CN, and three of them developed severe hyperbilirubinemia with a limited response to phenobarbital leading to an intermediate phenotype I/II. Clinical neurological and multimodal electrophysiological evaluations [electroencephalogram (EEG), visual (VEPs), motor (MEPs) and brainstem auditory (BAEPs) evoked potentials] were performed. Neurological examinations showed mild hand tremor in four patients (one pre-OLT and one post-OLT type I, two type I/II). EEG revealed high voltage paroxysmal discharges in four patients (three type I/II, and one type I with a marked improvement after OLT). VEPs showed P100 wave increased latency in five patients (three type I, and two type I/II considered for OLT evaluation). MEPs showed prolonged central motor conduction time in five patients (two type I; one type I/II; two type II). Only EEG and VEPs findings showed a correlation with high bilirubin levels. BAEPs were normal. In conclusion, VEPs and EEG contribute to identify and monitor bilirubin neurotoxic effects, and may play a decisional role in some cases of severe hyperbilirubinemia without overt neurologic damage.

Cervico-oculo-Acoustic syndrome in a male with consanguineous parents.

BACKGROUND: The cervico-oculo-acoustic syndrome comprises Klippel-Feil anomaly, sensorineural deafness and Duane's retraction syndrome. Polygenic, autosomal dominant, and X-linked inheritance have been hypothesized. The disorder has rarely been reported in males. CASE REPORT: A 42-year-old male, born of consanguineous parents, presented with Duane's syndrome, mixed hearing loss, C2-C3 fusion, neck stiffness, and right facial palsy. A variety of cardiac, neurological and urogenital anomalies occurred in his relatives. The electro-oculographic studies showed impaired abduction and adduction of the right eye and impaired abduction of the left eye. Vergence, vertical eye movements and peripheral vestibular responses were normal. Somatosensory evoked potentials showed absence of the N13 peak and brainstem auditory evoked potentials bilateral delay of the I-III interpeak latencies. CONCLUSIONS: Consanguinity of the patient's parents, not previously reported, suggests autosomal recessive inheritance, but autosomal dominant inheritance is indicated by the family history. The pattern of the oculomotor deficit is consistent with bilateral dysplasia of the abducens nuclei with preserved internuclear neurons in the right abducens nucleus. Neurophysiological investigations revealed lower brainstem and cervical cord involvement.

Electrophysiologic characterization in spinocerebellar ataxia 17.

The authors performed a multimodal electrophysiologic evaluation in nine patients belonging to four SCA17 (spinocerebellar ataxia type 17) families. Peripheral nerve and visual system were not involved. Brainstem auditory evoked potentials were constantly abnormal with central type lesions. Magnetic motor evoked potentials were abnormal only in the lower limbs, suggesting a length-dependent involvement of the pyramidal tract. Somatosensory evoked potentials were abnormal in almost all our patients, and abnormalities were consistent with a somatosensory pathway involvement along the brainstem.

Multimodal electrophysiologic follow-up study in 3 mutated but presymptomatic members of a spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1) family.

The objective was to determine the progression of nervous system involvement in spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1). Three presymptomatic members of an Italian SCA1 family underwent molecular analysis and showed the SCA1 mutation. They were defined as "at risk/mutated" individuals. A clinical and electrophysiologic 7-9 year follow-up was performed. The Inherited Ataxia Progression Scale was used for clinical staging. Sensory and motor conduction velocities, somatosensory evoked potentials and transcranial magnetic stimulation were performed at least three times in each subject. Clinical examination showed the early corticospinal pathway involvement. Electrophysiologic investigations confirmed that at the asymptomatic stage only magnetic motor cortex stimulation was abnormal and rapidly worsened with time. Somatosensory pathway studies showed a later involvement and a light sensory-motor neuropathy was the last electrophysiologic abnormality to be recognised. These data confirm that SCA1 phenotype is characterised by early and prevalent pyramidal tract involvement and that peripheral neuropathy is a late and moderate complication.

A mitogenic view on the evolutionary history of the Holarctic freshwater gadoid, burbot (Lota lota).

Climatic oscillations during the Pleistocene epoch had a dramatic impact on the distribution of biota in the northern hemisphere. In order to trace glacial refugia and postglacial colonization routes on a global scale, we studied mitochondrial DNA sequence variation in a freshwater fish (burbot, Lota lota; Teleostei, Gadidae) with a circumpolar distribution. The subdivision of burbot in the subspecies Lota lota lota (Eurasia and Alaska) and Lota lota maculosa (North America, south of the Great Slave Lake) was reflected in two distinct mitochondrial lineages (average genetic distance is 2.08%). The lota form was characterized by 30 closely related haplotypes and a large part of its range (from Central Europe to Beringia) was characterized by two widespread ancestral haplotypes, implying that transcontinental exchange/migration was possible for cold-adapted freshwater taxa in recent evolutionary time. However, the derived mitochondrial variants observed in peripheral populations point to a recent separation from the core group and postglacial recolonization from distinct refugia. Beringia served as refuge from where L. l. lota dispersed southward into North America after the last glacial maximum. Genetic variation in the maculosa form consisted of three mitochondrial clades, which were linked to at least three southern refugia in North America. Two mitochondrial clades east of the Continental Divide (Mississippian and Missourian clades) had a distinct geographical distribution in the southern refuge zones but intergraded in the previously glaciated area. The third clade (Pacific) was exclusively found west of the Continental Divide.

Post-exercise facilitation and depression of motor evoked potentials to transcranial magnetic stimulation: a study in multiple sclerosis.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate motor cortex excitability changes by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) following repetitive muscle contractions in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS); to state whether a typical pattern of post-exercise motor evoked potentials (MEPs) is related to clinical fatigue in MS. METHODS: In 41 patients with definite MS (32 with fatigue and 9 without fatigue according to Fatigue Severity Scale) and 13 controls, MEPs were recorded at rest: at baseline condition, following repetitive contractions until fatigue, and after fatigue, to evaluate post-exercise MEP facilitation (PEF) and depression (PED). RESULTS: After exercise, MEP amplitude significantly increased both in patients and controls (PEF). When fatigue set in, MEP amplitude was significantly reduced in normal subjects (PED), but not in patients. Post-exercise MEP findings were similar both in patients with and without fatigue. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest an intracortical motor dysfunction following a voluntary contraction in MS patients, possibly due to failure of depression of facilitatory cortical circuits, or alternatively of inhibitory mechanisms.

A novel mutation in SACS gene in a family from southern Italy.

A form of autosomal recessive spastic ataxia (ARSACS) has been described in the Charlevoix and Saguenay regions of Quebec. So far a frameshift and a nonsense mutation have been identified in the SACS gene. The authors report a new mutation (1859insC), leading to a frameshift with a premature termination of the gene product sacsin, in two sisters from consanguineous parents. The phenotype is similar to previously described patients with ARSACS.

Benign adult familial myoclonic epilepsy: genetic heterogeneity and allelism with ADCME.

Benign adult familial myoclonic epilepsy (BAFME) has been mapped to chromosome 8q24; however, genetic heterogeneity has been recently suggested. The authors report a clinical and electrophysiologic study of two Italian BAFME families showing linkage to chromosome 2p11.1-q12.2. Their report supports the evidence of non-Japanese families with BAFME and suggests a possible allelism with the recently described autosomal dominant cortical myoclonus and epilepsy syndrome.

Neurophysiologic evaluation of central-peripheral sensory and motor pudendal pathways in primary premature ejaculation.

OBJECTIVES: Pudendal nerve somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs), the bulbocavernosus (BC) reflex, and BC perineal motor evoked potentials after transcranial magnetic cortical stimulation were performed in patients with primary premature ejaculation to investigate the somatic sensory and motor function of the genital area. METHODS: Fourteen patients with primary premature ejaculation underwent psychological counseling, urologic physical examination, transrectal ultrasound examination, laboratory testing, and the Stamey test. The spinal and cortical pudendal nerve SEPs were performed by dorsal nerve stimulation at the penile shaft (DN-SEPs) in all patients and at the glans penis (GP-SEPs) in 3 of them. The BC reflex was obtained by stimulating the base of the penis. RESULTS: The mean sensory threshold did not significantly differ between the patients and normal subjects. Cortical DN-SEPs were normal in all patients. The sensory central conduction time, calculated in 6 patients, was normal. The mean cortical DN-SEP amplitude was significantly smaller in patients than in controls. In 3 patients and in 3 controls who underwent both DN-SEP and GP-SEP testing, the glans penis sensory threshold was lower than the dorsal nerve threshold and the cortical GP-SEP latency was longer than the cortical DN-SEP latency. The BC reflex was normal in most patients. The BC motor evoked potentials were normal in all patients, but one. CONCLUSIONS: We did not confirm either a faster conduction along the pudendal sensory pathway or a greater cortical representation of the sensory stimuli from the genital area in our patients. Moreover, we did not confirm hyperexcitability of the BC reflex in them. Our results suggest that the electrophysiologic approach is probably not sufficient to clarify the causes of primary premature ejaculation. A more integrated investigation could allow better results in this field.

Is Ross syndrome a dysautonomic disorder only? An electrophysiologic and histologic study.

OBJECTIVE: To define the involvement of peripheral nerve fibers in Ross syndrome. METHODS: Mechanical pain perception, tactile and thermal thresholds on hand, foot dorsum, thigh, median nerve orthodromic sensory conduction velocity (SCV) and motor conduction velocity (MCV), sural nerve antidromic SCV, peroneal nerve MCV, H-reflex, F-wave, median, tibial nerve somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEPs), perioral, hand CO(2) laser late (LEPs) and ultralate evoked potentials, sympathetic skin response (SSRs), cardiovascular, Minor sweat, silastic imprint, histamine, photopletysmographic and pupil pilocarpine tests, cutaneous innervation immunohistochemical techniques were studied in 3 patients with Ross syndrome. RESULTS: Quantitative sensory testing showed altered results in patients 1 and 2, and patient 3 had a slight impairment of mechanical pain perception. Nerve conduction, except for a median nerve distal reduction of sensory conduction in patient 1, F-wave and SSEP findings were normal; H-reflex was absent at rest in all patients. Hand LEPs were absent in patient 2, ultralate potentials were absent in patients 1 and 2. Skin biopsy showed a disease duration related reduction of unmyelinated and myelinated sensory fibers and a lack of unmyelinated autonomic fibers in all patients. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that Ross syndrome is a degenerative disorder involving progressive sudomotor fibers, and then epidermal sensory unmyelinated and myelinated fibers.

Excitatory and inhibitory mechanisms in Wilson's disease: investigation with magnetic motor cortex stimulation.

We have evaluated cortical excitability in nine patients affected by Wilson's disease (WD) using transcranial magnetic (TMS) and electric (TES) cortical stimulation and central silent period (CSP) data. A clinical score was derived from the sum of scores assigned to extrapyramidal, pyramidal and cerebellar signs. All patients underwent TMS. Motor evoked potentials (MEPs) from abductor pollicis brevis (APB) and tibialis anterior (TA) muscles were recorded. MEP threshold and amplitude, central motor conduction time (CMCT), CSP threshold, CSP and peripheral silent period (PSP) duration were measured. Three patients also underwent transcranial bifocal electric cortical stimulation (TES) and MEPs were recorded from the APB muscle, and CMCT, MEP threshold and amplitude were measured. TMS MEPs were absent from relaxed muscles in six patients and from contracted muscles in three. CMCT was prolonged in six patients. APB CMCT correlated with clinical score. In three patients in whom TMS revealed abnormal or no MEP, TES MEPs were of normal threshold and amplitude. The CSP threshold was increased in seven patients, and CSP was absent in one. These results suggest an intracortical presynaptic motor dysfunction in WD.

Adult-onset familial laryngeal abductor paralysis, cerebellar ataxia, and pure motor neuropathy.

Two brothers presented with late-onset cerebellar ataxia and severe dysphonia. Brain MRI showed vermian and hemispheric cerebellar atrophy. Laringofiberscopy revealed laryngeal abductor paralysis in both patients. Neurophysiologic studies showed a pure motor neuropathy. The combined findings and the molecular analysis suggest a new familial disorder. Inheritance is most likely autosomal recessive, but X-linked transmission is also possible.

Accuracy of clinical diagnostic criteria for Friedreich's ataxia.

The accuracy of the diagnostic criteria for Friedreich's ataxia proposed by Harding and by the Quebec Cooperative Study on Friedreich's Ataxia was studied in 142 patients with progressive unremitting ataxia of autosomal recessive inheritance or sporadic occurrence. Eighty-eight patients received the molecular diagnosis of Friedreich's ataxia. Traditional diagnostic criteria are characterized by high specificity, but they yield a high number of false-negative diagnoses. We suggest three levels of diagnostic certainty: (1) possible Friedreich's ataxia, defined as sporadic or recessive progressive ataxia with (a) lower limb areflexia and dysarthria, Babinski sign, or electrocardiographic repolarization abnormalities, or (b) with lower limb retained reflexes and electrocardiographic repolarization abnormalities (95% sensitivity and 88% positive predictive value); (2) probable Friedreich's ataxia as defined by Harding's criteria (63% sensitivity and 96% positive predictive value) or by Quebec Cooperative Study on Friedreich's Ataxia criteria (63% sensitivity and 98% positive predictive value); (3) definite diagnosis, molecularly confirmed.

Researching a differential impairment of frontal functions and explicit memory in early Parkinson's disease.

An impairment at tasks sensitive to frontal lobe damage has been repeatedly reported in Parkinson's disease, but the exact nature of these deficits has not yet been clarified. Similarly, deficits of visuo-spatial functions have been frequently observed, but it is still debated whether verbal and visuo-spatial memory can be differentially affected. In this study we have compared the performance of 20 mild Parkinson's disease patients (I-II Hoehn and Yahr stage) and 18 matched normal controls, at tasks assessing frontal functions and explicit memory. We detected a selective deficit in set shifting and maintaining, without impairment in categorization and set formation. The lack of a selective increase in perseverative errors might indicate that perseverations either measure something different from set shifting or that they do not represent an index sensitive enough to set shifting impairment. Parkinson's disease patients were also significantly impaired at Raven's Progressive Matrices, a task assessing both frontal and visuo-spatial aspects. However, they did not show any differential impairment of visuo-spatial memory. Indeed, despite a trend of lower performance in visuo-spatial learning, memory performance of Parkinson's disease patients was significantly different from that of controls only at a free recall test which involved both verbal and visuo-spatial memory. We suggest the exploration of set shifting and maintaining to detect 'frontal' deficits in mild Parkinson's disease. We argue that Raven's Progressive Matrices is a valuable task for detecting subclinical cognitive deficits in Parkinson's disease, even if it does not show a specific profile of impairment in these patients. According to our results, a differential evaluation of verbal vs. visuo-spatial memory is not necessary in clinical practice, whilst free recall confirms its usefulness to detect subclinical impairments of memory functions.

Influence of GAA expansion size and disease duration on central nervous system impairment in Friedreich's ataxia: contribution to the understanding of the pathophysiology of the disease.

OBJECTIVE: To verify if GAA expansion size could account for the severity of the central nervous system involvement in Friedreich's ataxia (FA). METHODS: Retrospective study of 52 FA patients (mean age 26.9+/-12.1 years; mean disease duration 10.6+/-7.6 years) homozygous for GAA expansion. Median nerve somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEPs) were available in 36 FA patients, upper limb motor evoked potentials (MEPs) to transcranial magnetic stimulation in 32, brainstem auditory evoked potentials (BAEPs) in 24, and visual evoked potentials (VEPs) in 34. N20, P100, MEP amplitude, SSEP and MEP central conduction time (CCT and CMCT), P100 latency and I-III and I-V interpeak latency, and a BAEP abnormality score were correlated with disease duration and GAA expansion size on the shorter (GAA1) and larger (GAA2) allele in each pair. RESULTS: The GAA1 size inversely correlated with the N20 amplitude (r = -0.49; P<0. 01). Disease duration directly correlated with CMCT (r = 0.57; P<0.01) and BAEP score (r = 0.61; P<0.01) and inversely with MEP (r = -0.40; P<0.05) and P100 amplitude (r = -0.39; P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that central somatosensory pathway involvement in FA is mainly determined by GAA1 expansion size. Vice versa, degeneration of pyramidal tracts, auditory and visual pathways seems to be a continuing process during the life of FA patients.

Combination of mtDNA mutations in a patient with a mitochondrial multisystem syndrome.

We report a patient who manifested a heterogeneous clinical presentation, including hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and hypothyroidism, with initially limited central nervous system involvement, and who harbored the mitochondrial (mt)DNA A3243G mutation. MtDNA analysis also revealed deleted genomes in muscle and blood. This atypical molecular combination may have influenced the clinical phenotype.