Inoculation of mother's own milk could personalize pasteurized donor human milk used for feeding preterm infants.

BACKGROUND: Human milk is a vehicle for bioactive compounds and beneficial bacteria which promote the establishment of a healthy gut microbiome of newborns, especially of preterm infants. Pasteurized donor human milk (PDHM) is the second-best option when preterm mother's own milk is unavailable. Since pasteurization affect the microbiological quality of donor milk, PDHM was inoculated with different preterm milk samples and then incubated, in order to evaluate the effect in terms of bacterial growth, human milk microbiome and proteolytic phenomena. METHODS: In an in-vitro study PDHM was inoculated at 10% v/v using ten preterm milk samples. Microbiological, metataxonomic and peptidomic analyses, on preterm milk samples at the baseline (T0), on PDHM and on inoculated milk (IM) samples at T0, after 2 h (T1) and 4 h (T2) of incubation at 37 °C, were conducted. RESULTS: IM samples at T2 showed a Total Bacterial Count not significantly different (p > 0.01) compared to preterm milk samples. At T2 lactic acid bacteria level was restored in all IM. After inoculation, metataxonomic analysis in IM samples showed that Proteobacteria remained the predominant phylum while Firmicutes moved from 3% at T1 to 9.4% at T2. Peptidomic profile of IM resembled that of PDHM, incubated for the same time, in terms of number and type of peptides. CONCLUSION: The study demonstrated that inoculation of PDHM with mother's own milk could restore bacterial growth and personalize human milk microbiome in PDHM. This effect could be beneficial because of the presence of maternal probiotic bacteria which make PDHM more similar to mother's own milk.

Boys who are born preterm show a relative lack of fat-free mass at 5 years of age compared to their peers.

AIM: Prematurity is associated with features of metabolic syndrome in young adulthood. We investigated the body composition and blood pressure of children born preterm. METHODS: A longitudinal, observational study was conducted with preterm infants who had a birth weight of <1500 g and a gestational age of <32 weeks. Growth and body composition were assessed by air displacement plethysmography at term equivalent age and at school age and were compared to those of 61 healthy, term breastfed subjects. RESULTS: A total of 63 preterm infants were enrolled. At term equivalent age, growth and fat-free mass were lower in preterm infants than in term newborns, but fat mass was higher. At 5 years of age, children born preterm were still lighter and shorter than children born at term. When the results were analysed by gender, the fat-free mass index was lower in boys born preterm than in their peers (12.1 ± 1.1 versus 13.0 ± 1.0 kg/h(2) p < 0.005), whereas no difference was detected among girls. Diastolic blood pressure was higher in children born preterm than in children born at term (61.14 ± 7.8 vs 56.69 ± 8.2 mmHg, p = 0.009). CONCLUSION: Boys born preterm showed a relative lack of fat-free mass at school age compared to their peers.

[Effect of prematurity on fat mass distribution and blood pressure at prepubertal age: a follow-up study]. / Effetto della prematurità sulla distribuzione della massa grassa e sulla pressione arteriosa in età prepubere: studio di follow-up.

OBJECTIVES: Preterm infants may develop altered adiposity, a risk factor for metabolic syndrome. The aim was to evaluate if body composition and blood pressure were altered in a cohort of children born preterm followed up to prepubertal age. METHODS: Observational, longitudinal, explorative study. Forty children born preterm underwent growth and body composition assessment by an air displacement plethysmography system at term c.a. and at 5 years. BMI, skinfold thicknesses and blood pressure were further measured at 5 years. Inclusion criteria were birth weight <1500 g and gestational age <32 weeks. Exclusion criteria were congenital/chromosomal or surgical diseases. Forty-three healthy children born at term were the reference group. RESULTS: At term c.a. preterm children were lighter (2455 +/- 484 g vs 3247 +/- 345 g; p<0.001) and shorter (45.6 +/- 3.4 cm vs 49.1 +/- 2.3 cm; p<0.001) than children born at term and their fat mass was higher (14.8% vs 8.6%; p=0.02). At 5 years of life, weight and height of children born preterm were lower than those of their counterpart (18.328 +/- 3.01 vs 20.302 +/- 3.01 g; p=0.008 and 109.7 +/- 6.5 vs 112.7 +/- 4.3 cm; p=0.02, respectively). No difference in percentage of fat mass was detected. Abdominal, subscapular and suprailiac skinfolds (mm) were larger in the preterm group (6.9 +/- 3.6 vs 5.3 +/- 2.8, p=0.002; 6.5 +/- 2.8 vs 5.0 +/- 1.6, p=0,01 and 11.8 +/- 4.3 vs 9.3 +/- 3.8, p=0,01, respectively). Diastolic pressure (mmHg) was higher in the preterm group (62.2 vs 57.5, p=0.01). CONCLUSIONS: At prepubertal age children born preterm tend towards a greater truncal adiposity and increased values of diastolic pressure which might have adverse consequences for later health.

[Growth and body composition changes in late preterm infants in the first months of life]. / Crescita e composizione corporea di neonati late-preterm nei primi mesi di vita.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to compare growth and body composition of late preterm infants to that of extremely preterm and full-term infants. METHODS: Observational longitudinal study. Forty-nine late preterm infants and 63 extremely preterm infants were included in the study. Forty healthy, full-term, breast-fed infants were enrolled as a reference group. Anthropometric parameters and body composition by an air displacement plethysmography system were assessed at 36th week, at term, at 1 and 3 months of corrected age in all groups. Late preterm infants were also assessed on the fifth day of life. RESULTS: Late preterm infants showed higher weight, length and head circumference values than those of very low birth weight infants but lower fat mass values on the fifth day of life and at 36th week of corrected age. However, at 3 months of corrected age, percentage of fat mass in late preterm infants reached values comparable with those of very low birth weight infants, probably because of the fast catch-up fat recorded between the fifth day of life and term corrected age. Moreover, percentage of fat mass in the first month of corrected age in preterm infants was higher as compared with full-term infants. This difference was no longer found at 3 months of corrected age. CONCLUSIONS: Further studies are needed to investigate whether this rapid increase in fat mass may modulate the risk of chronic diseases.

[Quality of post-discharge growth in small for gestational age preterm infants: an explorative study]. / Qualità della crescita post-dimissione in prematuri nati piccoli per età gestazionale: studio esplorativo.

OBJECTIVES: The Preterm newborns, especially if born small for gestational age (SGA), appear to be at risk for developing post-natal growth failure and an altered body composition. Nutrition-related growth during a critical window in infancy may affect the development of metabolic syndrome in adult life. Aim of the present study was to test the hypothesis that the post-discharge period is critical for programming the catch up growth and the later development of metabolic syndrome in small for gestational-age infants fed either standard or enriched formula. METHODS: A clinic randomized explorative study was conducted. Twenty-seven preterm SGA infants (gestational age < or = 33 weeks; birth weight < or = 1500 g) underwent assessment of growth and body composition by means of an air displacement system at 36 weeks, 15 days and 1 months adjusted age. SGA infants were randomized to receive standard formula (Kcal: 67/100 ml, proteins: 1,4 g/100 ml) or enriched formula (Kcal: 75/100 ml, proteins: 2 g/100 ml) after discharge. RESULTS: No differences in weight, fat mass, length and head circumference were found in SGA infants fed standard formula as compared to those fed enriched formula at 15 day or 1 months adjusted age. CONCLUSIONS: This explorative study suggests that in SGA infants growth, both in terms of quantity and quality, is not influenced by different nutritional management during the early post-discharge period.

[Early nutrition: the role of genetics and epigenetics]. / Nutrizione nelle prime epoche della vita: ruolo della genetica e dell' epigenetica.

Many adult diseases seem to be associated with early nutrition and the subsequent growth pattern. Epidemiological studies hypotized that babies with intrauterine and/or neonatal growth retardation may be at greater risk of metabolic syndrome later in life. According to the Barker's "thrifty phenotype hypotesis" early malnutrition, whereas inducing physiological compensation by the promotion of early survival, appears to confer greater susceptibility to adults diseases. Epigenetics, that is the interindividual variation in DNA methylation patterns and chromatin remodelling, provide a potential explanation for how environmental factors can modify the risk for development of many common diseases. Beginning from animal models, many studies concerning early nutrition, epigenetic modifications and genes expression have been carried out. Maternal undernutrition during pregnancy, especially in the peri-implantation period, not only causes a prolonged growth retardation but also modifies the programming of biochemical mechanisms related to endocrine-metabolic control. Human studies have demonstrated the role played by IGF-1 as indicator of nutritional status and fetal/postnatal growth retardation. It has been reported that alterations in IGF axis, which predispose to adults diseases, may be due to an alterated epigenetic regulation that can modify IGF expression. Despite the critical inter-relation between early nutrition, growth, development, and subsequent health, there are few data on the influence of early nutrition on the modifications of the epigenetic gear. Furthermore it is hoped for a bigger attention to the early nutrition to prevent the development of diseases later in life.

Adiposity in small for gestational age preterm infants assessed at term equivalent age.

OBJECTIVE: Infants classified as small for gestational age are considered to have developed under adverse intrauterine conditions that lead to lack of fat mass accretion. The aim of this study was to test the null hypothesis that the fat mass in preterm small for gestational age infants assessed at term equivalent age was not different from that of full-term small for gestational age newborns. DESIGN: Observational study. SETTING: Northern Italy. PATIENTS: 67 small for gestational age preterm infants and 132 small for gestational age full-term newborns. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Growth and body composition, assessed by means of a paediatric air displacement plethysmography system, were measured at term equivalent age in the preterm infants and on the third day of life in the full-term newborns. RESULTS: The mean (SD) gestational age of preterm infants was 30.6 (2.3) weeks and their mean (SD) birth weight was 1140 (237) g. At assessment weight was not different between the preterm and full-term infants, whereas the percentage of total body fat mass was higher in the preterm infants (14.3% (SD 4.7%) vs 5.8% (SD 3.5%), p<0.005). CONCLUSIONS: Preterm infants, born small for gestational age, appear to be at risk for increased adiposity, which is a risk factor for the development of the metabolic syndrome.

Influence of protein and energy intakes on body composition of formula-fed preterm infants after term.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate changes in body composition in 48 preterm infants in relation to protein and energy intakes from term up to 3 months of corrected age, using air displacement plethysmography. Protein intake (grams per kilogram per day) was negatively associated with percentage of fat mass at 1 month of corrected age. The high-protein-intake group showed greater gain in lean body mass gain than did the low-protein-intake group. This finding suggests that during the first month of corrected age, high protein intake results in a significantly different weight gain composition.

[Quality of growth in preterm infants assessed at term equivalent age: a pilot study]. / E possibile mimare nel neonato pretermine la composizione corporea fetale? Uno studio pilota.

BACKGROUND: The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that preterm infants' growth duplicates fetal growth rates and that body composition replicates in utero body composition. Aim ofthe study was to compare the total body fat mass between preterm infants assessed at term and full-term newborns. METHODS: A prospective observational study was conducted. Forty-five preterm infants (mean (SD) gestational age: 30,1 (2.3) weeks; birth weight: 1125 (280) g), and 40 full term (mean (SD) 38.5 (1.2) weeks, 3203 (385) g, breast fed infants underwent assessment of growth and body composition by means of an air displacement system at term adjusted-age and on day 3 of life, respectively. A T test was used to compare % fat mass between preterm and term infants. RESULTS: Weight, length and head circumference were smaller in the preterm group assessed at term adjusted-age as compared to the term group. Mean (SD) percentage of fat mass in preterm infants was significantly higher as compared to term infants [14.5 (4.3) vs 7,6 (3.6), P < 0.0001]. CONCLUSIONS: Our data demonstrate that preterm infants are at risk of developing an increased adiposity in addition to postnatal growth retardation.