Corticospinal inhibition investigated in relation to upper extremity motor function in cervical spinal cord injury.

OBJECTIVE: Corticospinal inhibitory mechanisms are relevant to functional recovery but remain poorly understood after spinal cord injury (SCI). Post-injury characteristics of contralateral silent period (CSP), a measure of corticospinal inhibition evaluated using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), is inconsistent in literature. We envisioned that investigating CSP across muscles with varying degrees of weakness may be a reasonable approach to resolve inconsistencies and elucidate the relevance of corticospinal inhibition for upper extremity function following SCI. METHODS: We studied 27 adults with chronic C1-C8 SCI (age 48.8 ± 16.1 years, 3 females) and 16 able-bodied participants (age 33.2 ± 11.8 years, 9 females). CSP characteristics were assessed across biceps (muscle power = 3-5) and triceps (muscle power = 1-3) representing stronger and weaker muscles, respectively. We assessed functional abilities using the Capabilities of the Upper Extremity Test (CUE-T). RESULTS: Participants with chronic SCI had prolonged CSPs for biceps but delayed and diminished CSPs for triceps compared to able-bodied participants. Early-onset CSPs for biceps and longer, deeper CSPs for triceps correlated with better CUE-T scores. CONCLUSIONS: Corticospinal inhibition is pronounced for stronger biceps but diminished for weaker triceps muscle in SCI indicating innervation relative to the level of injury matters in the study of CSP. SIGNIFICANCE: Nevertheless, corticospinal inhibition or CSP holds relevance for upper extremity function following SCI.

Contralaterally controlled functional electrical stimulation video game therapy for hand rehabilitation after stroke: a randomized controlled trial.

PURPOSE: To estimate the effect of integrating custom-designed hand therapy video games (HTVG) with contralaterally controlled functional electrical stimulation (CCFES) therapy. METHODS: Fifty-two stroke survivors with chronic (>6 months) upper limb hemiplegia were randomized to 12 weeks of CCFES or CCFES + HTVG. Treatment involved self-administration of technology-mediated therapy at home plus therapist-administered CCFES-assisted task practice in the lab. Pre- and post-treatment assessments were made of hand dexterity, upper limb impairment and activity limitation, and cognitive function. RESULTS: No significant between-group differences were found on any outcome measure, and the average magnitudes of improvement within both groups were small. The incidence of technical problems with study devices at home was greater for the CCFES + HTVG group. This negatively affected adherence and may partially explain the absence of effect of HTVG. At end-of-treatment, large majorities of both treatment groups had positive perceptions of treatment efficacy and expressed enthusiasm for the treatments. CONCLUSION: This study makes an important contribution to the research literature on the importance of environmental factors, concomitant impairments, and technology simplification when designing technology-based therapies intended to be self-administered at home. This study failed to show any added benefit of HTVG to CCFES therapy.Clinicaltrials.gov (NCT03058796).

Contralaterally controlled functional electrical stimulation (CCFES) is an emerging therapy for upper limb rehabilitation after stroke that is designed, in part, to be self-administered at home.While movement-soliciting video games have shown promise in rehabilitation, this study failed to show a significant added benefit of integrating CCFES with hand therapy video games.For technology-based therapies intended to be self-administered at home, this study brings to light the importance of making every component of rehabilitation technology as user friendly and trouble-free as possible.For technology-based therapies intended to be self-administered at home, this study brings to light the importance of assuring that the home environment is conducive to home-based therapy.

Underlying Mechanisms and Neurorehabilitation of Gait after Stroke.

The title of this Special Issue is: "Underlying Mechanisms and Neurorehabilitation of Gait after Stroke" [...].

Targeting CNS Neural Mechanisms of Gait in Stroke Neurorehabilitation.

The central nervous system (CNS) control of human gait is complex, including descending cortical control, affective ascending neural pathways, interhemispheric communication, whole brain networks of functional connectivity, and neural interactions between the brain and spinal cord. Many important studies were conducted in the past, which administered gait training using externally targeted methods such as treadmill, weight support, over-ground gait coordination training, functional electrical stimulation, bracing, and walking aids. Though the phenomenon of CNS activity-dependent plasticity has served as a basis for more recently developed gait training methods, neurorehabilitation gait training has yet to be precisely focused and quantified according to the CNS source of gait control. Therefore, we offer the following hypotheses to the field: Hypothesis 1. Gait neurorehabilitation after stroke will move forward in important ways if research studies include brain structural and functional characteristics as measures of response to treatment. Hypothesis 2. Individuals with persistent gait dyscoordination after stroke will achieve greater recovery in response to interventions that incorporate the current and emerging knowledge of CNS function by directly engaging CNS plasticity and pairing it with peripherally directed, plasticity-based motor learning interventions. These hypotheses are justified by the increase in the study of neural control of motor function, with emerging research beginning to elucidate neural factors that drive recovery. Some are developing new measures of brain function. A number of groups have developed and are sharing sophisticated, curated databases containing brain images and brain signal data, as well as other types of measures and signal processing methods for data analysis. It will be to the great advantage of stroke survivors if the results of the current state-of-the-art and emerging neural function research can be applied to the development of new gait training interventions.

Stance Phase Gait Training Post Stroke Using Simultaneous Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation and Motor Learning-Based Virtual Reality-Assisted Therapy: Protocol Development and Initial Testing.

Gait deficits are often persistent after stroke, and current rehabilitation methods do not restore normal gait for everyone. Targeted methods of focused gait therapy that meet the individual needs of each stroke survivor are needed. Our objective was to develop and test a combination protocol of simultaneous brain stimulation and focused stance phase training for people with chronic stroke (>6 months). We combined Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) with targeted stance phase therapy using Virtual Reality (VR)-assisted treadmill training and overground practice. The training was guided by motor learning principles. Five users (>6 months post-stroke with stance phase gait deficits) completed 10 treatment sessions. Each session began with 30 min of VR-assisted treadmill training designed to apply motor learning (ML)-based stance phase targeted practice. During the first 15 min of the treadmill training, bihemispheric tDCS was simultaneously delivered. Immediately after, users completed 30 min of overground (ML)-based gait training. The outcomes included the feasibility of protocol administration, gait speed, Timed Up and Go (TUG), Functional Gait Assessment (FGA), paretic limb stance phase control capability, and the Fugl−Meyer for lower extremity coordination (FMLE). The changes in the outcome measures (except the assessments of stance phase control capability) were calculated as the difference from baseline. Statistically and clinically significant improvements were observed after 10 treatment sessions in gait speed (0.25 ± 0.11 m/s) and FGA (4.55 ± 3.08 points). Statistically significant improvements were observed in TUG (2.36 ± 3.81 s) and FMLE (4.08 ± 1.82 points). A 10-session intervention combining tDCS and ML-based task-specific gait rehabilitation was feasible and produced clinically meaningful improvements in lower limb function in people with chronic gait deficits after stroke. Because only five users tested the new protocol, the results cannot be generalized to the whole population. As a contribution to the field, we developed and tested a protocol combining brain stimulation and ML-based stance phase training for individuals with chronic stance phase deficits after stroke. The protocol was feasible to administer; statistically and/or clinically significant improvements in gait function across an array of gait performance measures were observed with this relatively short treatment protocol.

Safety and efficacy of transcranial direct current stimulation in upper extremity rehabilitation after tetraplegia: protocol of a multicenter randomized, clinical trial.

STUDY DESIGN: A multisite, randomized, controlled, double-blinded phase I/II clinical trial. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this clinical trial is to evaluate the safety, feasibility and efficacy of pairing noninvasive transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) with rehabilitation to promote paretic upper extremity recovery and functional independence in persons living with chronic cervical spinal cord injury (SCI). SETTING: Four-site trial conducted across Cleveland Clinic, Louis Stokes Veterans Affairs Medical Center of Cleveland and MetroHealth Rehabilitation Rehabilitation Institute of Ohio, and Kessler Foundation of New Jersey. METHODS: Forty-four adults (age ≥18 years) with tetraplegia following cervical SCI that occurred ≥1-year ago will participate. Participants will be randomly assigned to receive anodal tDCS or sham tDCS given in combination with upper extremity rehabilitation for 15 sessions each over 3-5 weeks. Assessments will be made twice at baseline separated by at least a 3-week interval, once at end-of-intervention, and once at 3-month follow-up. PRIMARY OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Primary outcome measure is upper extremity motor impairment assessed using the Graded Redefined Assessment of Strength, Sensibility and Prehension (GRASSP) scale. Functional abilities will be assessed using Capabilities of Upper Extremity-Test (CUE-T), while functional independence and participation restrictions will be evaluated using the self-care domain of Spinal Cord Independent Measure (SCIM), and Canadian Occupational Performance Measure (COPM). SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: Treatment-associated change in corticospinal excitability and output will also be studied using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and safety (reports of adverse events) and feasibility (attrition, adherence etc.) will also be evaluated. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClincalTrials.gov identifier NCT03892746. This clinical trial is being performed at four sites within the United States: Cleveland Clinic (lead site), Louis Stokes Cleveland Veterans Affairs Medical Center (VAMC) and MetroHealth Rehabilitation Institute in Ohio, and Kessler Foundation in New Jersey. The U.S. Army Medical Research Acquisition Activity, 820 Chandler Street, Fort Detrick MD 21702-5014 is the awarding and administering acquisition office.

Myoelectric Arm Orthosis in Motor Learning-Based Therapy for Chronic Deficits After Stroke and Traumatic Brain Injury.

BACKGROUND: Technologies that enhance motor learning-based therapy and are clinically deployable may improve outcome for those with neurological deficits. The MyoPro™ is a customized myoelectric upper extremity orthosis that utilizes volitionally generated weak electromyographic signals from paretic muscles to assist movement of an impaired arm. Our purpose was to evaluate MyoPro as a tool for motor learning-based therapy for individuals with chronic upper limb weakness. METHODS: This was a pilot study of thirteen individuals with chronic moderate/severe arm weakness due to either stroke (n = 7) or TBI (n = 6) who participated in a single group interventional study consisting of 2 phases. The in-clinic phase included 18 sessions (2x per week, 27hrs of face-to-face therapy) plus a home exercise program. The home phase included practice of the home exercise program. The study did not include a control group. Outcomes were collected at baseline and at weeks 3, 5, 7, 9, 12, 15, and 18. Statistics included mixed model regression analysis. RESULTS: Statistically significant and clinically meaningful improvements were observed on Fugl-Meyer (+7.5 points). Gains were seen at week 3, increased further through the in-clinic phase and were maintained during the home phase. Statistically significant changes in Modified Ashworth Scale, Range of Motion, and Chedoke Arm and Hand Activity Inventory were seen early during the in-clinic phase. Orthotic and Prosthetic User's Survey demonstrated satisfaction with the device throughout study participation. Both stroke and TBI participants responded to the intervention. CONCLUSIONS: Use of MyoPro in motor learning-based therapy resulted in clinically significant gains with a relatively short duration of in-person treatment. Further studies are warranted. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: www.ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier: NCT03215771.

Does rTMS Targeting Contralesional S1 Enhance Upper Limb Somatosensory Function in Chronic Stroke? A Proof-of-Principle Study.

BACKGROUND: Somatosensory deficits are prevalent after stroke, but effective interventions are limited. Brain stimulation of the contralesional primary somatosensory cortex (S1) is a promising adjunct to peripherally administered rehabilitation therapies. OBJECTIVE: To assess short-term effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) targeting contralesional (S1) of the upper extremity. METHODS: Using a single-session randomized crossover design, stroke survivors with upper extremity somatosensory loss participated in 3 rTMS treatments targeting contralesional S1: Sham, 5 Hz, and 1 Hz. rTMS was delivered concurrently with peripheral of sensory electrical stimulation and vibration of the affected hand. Outcomes included 2-point discrimination (2PD), proprioception, vibration perception threshold, monofilament threshold (size), and somatosensory evoked potential (SEP). Measures were collected before, immediately after treatment, and 1 hour after treatment. Mixed models were fit to analyze the effects of the 3 interventions. RESULTS: Subjects were 59.8 ± 8.1 years old and 45 ± 39 months poststroke. There was improvement in 2PD after 5-Hz rTMS for the stroke-affected (F(2, 76.163) = 3.5, P = .035) and unaffected arm (F(2, 192.786) = 10.6, P < .0001). Peak-to-peak SEP amplitudes were greater after 5-Hz rTMS for N33-P45 (F(2, 133.027) = 3.518, P = .032) and N45-P60 (F(2, 67.353) = 3.212, P = .047). Latencies shortened after 5-Hz rTMS for N20 (F(2, 69.64) = 3.37, P = .04), N60 (F(2, 47.343) = 4.375, P = .018), and P100 (F(2, 37.608) = 3.537, P = .039) peaks. There were no differences between changes immediately after the intervention and an hour later. CONCLUSIONS: Short-term application of facilitatory high-frequency rTMS (5Hz) to contralesional S1 combined with peripheral somatosensory stimulation may promote somatosensory function. This intervention may serve as a useful adjunct in somatosensory rehabilitation after stroke.

Use of a myoelectric upper limb orthosis for rehabilitation of the upper limb in traumatic brain injury: A case report.

BACKGROUND: Upper limb motor deficits following traumatic brain injury are prevalent and effective therapies are needed. The purpose of this case report was to illustrate response to a novel therapy using a myoelectric orthosis in a person with TBI.Case description: A 42-year-old female, 29.5 years post-traumatic brain injury with diminished motor control/coordination, and learned nonuse of the right arm. She also had cognitive deficits and did not spontaneously use her right arm functionally. INTERVENTION: Study included three phases: baseline data collection/device fabrication (five weeks); in-clinic training (2×/week for nine weeks); and home-use phase (nine weeks). The orthosis was incorporated into motor learning-based therapy.Outcomes: During in-clinic training, active range of motion, tone, muscle power, Fugl-Meyer, box and blocks test, and Chedoke assessment score improved. During the home-use phase, decrease in tone was maintained and all other outcomes declined but were still better upon study completion than baseline. The participant trained with the orthosis 70.12 h, logging over 13,000 repetitions of elbow flexion/extension and hand open/close. DISCUSSION: Despite long-standing traumatic brain injury, meaningful improvements in motor function were observed and were likely the results of high repetition practice of functional movement delivered over a long duration. Further assessment in a larger cohort is warranted.

Long-Dose Intensive Therapy Is Necessary for Strong, Clinically Significant, Upper Limb Functional Gains and Retained Gains in Severe/Moderate Chronic Stroke.

Background. Effective treatment methods are needed for moderate/severely impairment chronic stroke. Objective. The questions were the following: (1) Is there need for long-dose therapy or is there a mid-treatment plateau? (2) Are the observed gains from the prior-studied protocol retained after treatment? Methods. Single-blind, stratified/randomized design, with 3 applied technology treatment groups, combined with motor learning, for long-duration treatment (300 hours of treatment). Measures were Arm Motor Ability Test time and coordination-function (AMAT-T, AMAT-F, respectively), acquired pre-/posttreatment and 3-month follow-up (3moF/U); Fugl-Meyer (FM), acquired similarly with addition of mid-treatment. Findings. There was no group difference in treatment response (P ≥ .16), therefore data were combined for remaining analyses (n = 31; except for FM pre/mid/post, n = 36). Pre-to-Mid-treatment and Mid-to-Posttreatment gains of FM were statistically and clinically significant (P < .0001; 4.7 points and P < .001; 5.1 points, respectively), indicating no plateau at 150 hours and benefit of second half of treatment. From baseline to 3moF/U: (1) FM gains were twice the clinically significant benchmark, (2) AMAT-F gains were greater than clinically significant benchmark, and (3) there was statistically significant improvement in FM (P < .0001); AMAT-F (P < .0001); AMAT-T (P < .0001). These gains indicate retained clinically and statistically significant gains at 3moFU. From posttreatment to 3moF/U, gains on FM were maintained. There were statistically significant gains in AMAT-F (P = .0379) and AMAT-T P = .003.

Feasibility and clinical experience of implementing a myoelectric upper limb orthosis in the rehabilitation of chronic stroke patients: A clinical case series report.

Individuals with stroke are often left with persistent upper limb dysfunction, even after treatment with traditional rehabilitation methods. The purpose of this retrospective study is to demonstrate feasibility of the implementation of an upper limb myoelectric orthosis for the treatment of persistent moderate upper limb impairment following stroke (>6 months). METHODS: Nine patients (>6 months post stroke) participated in treatment at an outpatient Occupational Therapy department utilizing the MyoPro myoelectric orthotic device. Group therapy was provided at a frequency of 1-2 sessions per week (60-90 minutes per session). Patients were instructed to perform training with the device at home on non-therapy days and to continue with use of the device after completion of the group training period. Outcome measures included Fugl-Meyer Upper Limb Assessment (FM) and modified Ashworth Scale (MAS). RESULTS: Patients demonstrated clinically important and statistically significant improvement of 9.0±4.8 points (p = 0.0005) on a measure of motor control impairment (FM) during participation in group training. It was feasible to administer the training in a group setting with the MyoPro, using a 1:4 ratio (therapist to patients). Muscle tone improved for muscles with MAS >1.5 at baseline. DISCUSSION: Myoelectric orthosis use is feasible in a group clinic setting and in home-use structure for chronic stroke survivors. Clinically important motor control gains were observed on FM in 7 of 9 patients who participated in training.

Association of spasticity and motor dysfunction in chronic stroke.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of increased muscle tone after stroke is frequently reported as 30% to 40%, and the condition is often concurrent with motor control deficits, manifesting as an inability to isolate paretic-limb joint movements. OBJECTIVE: The objectives of this retrospective analysis were to 1) report the prevalence of increased muscle tone in a convenience sample of 128 chronic stroke survivors with moderate/severe motor deficits and 2) quantify the relation between tone and motor impairment in chronic stroke survivors. METHODS: Analyses included descriptive statistics and multiple regression modeling, with the modified Ashworth Scale score (MAS; tone) as a predictor of isolated joint movement control (Fugl-Meyer score [FM]; motor impairment). RESULTS: Increased muscle tone was present in 97% of subjects. Increased muscle tone was associated with impaired motor control (FM; upper extremity, P=0.008; lower extremity, P=0.03) after adjusting for age, time since stroke and sex. We found a significant difference between flexor and extensor strength for finger, elbow, hip and knee joints (P<0.002). Participants were classified in high and low MAS score groups. With high MAS score and for muscles of finger flexion and forearm pronation, we found a trend toward impaired strength of antagonist muscles (finger extensors and forearm supinators, respectively) as compared with low MAS score for these same muscle pairings. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of increased tone was higher in this study than in previous reports. Increased muscle tone in chronic stroke survivors with persistent motor dysfunction could be associated with impaired motor control and differential muscle strength of antagonistic muscles.

Greater Cortical Thickness Is Associated With Enhanced Sensory Function After Arm Rehabilitation in Chronic Stroke.

OBJECTIVE: Somatosensory function is critical to normal motor control. After stroke, dysfunction of the sensory systems prevents normal motor function and degrades quality of life. Structural neuroplasticity underpinnings of sensory recovery after stroke are not fully understood. The objective of this study was to identify changes in bilateral cortical thickness (CT) that may drive recovery of sensory acuity. METHODS: Chronic stroke survivors (n = 20) were treated with 12 weeks of rehabilitation. Measures were sensory acuity (monofilament), Fugl-Meyer upper limb and CT change. Permutation-based general linear regression modeling identified cortical regions in which change in CT was associated with change in sensory acuity. RESULTS: For the ipsilesional hemisphere in response to treatment, CT increase was significantly associated with sensory improvement in the area encompassing the occipital pole, lateral occipital cortex (inferior and superior divisions), intracalcarine cortex, cuneal cortex, precuneus cortex, inferior temporal gyrus, occipital fusiform gyrus, supracalcarine cortex, and temporal occipital fusiform cortex. For the contralesional hemisphere, increased CT was associated with improved sensory acuity within the posterior parietal cortex that included supramarginal and angular gyri. Following upper limb therapy, monofilament test score changed from 45.0 ± 13.3 to 42.6 ± 12.9 mm ( P = .063) and Fugl-Meyer score changed from 22.1 ± 7.8 to 32.3 ± 10.1 ( P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Rehabilitation in the chronic stage after stroke produced structural brain changes that were strongly associated with enhanced sensory acuity. Improved sensory perception was associated with increased CT in bilateral high-order association sensory cortices reflecting the complex nature of sensory function and recovery in response to rehabilitation.

A Targeted Self-Management Approach for Reducing Stroke Risk Factors in African American Men Who Have Had a Stroke or Transient Ischemic Attack.

PURPOSE: This study compared a novel self-management (TargetEd MAnageMent Intervention [TEAM]) versus treatment as usual (TAU) to reduce stroke risk in African American (AA) men. DESIGN: Six-month prospective randomized controlled trial with outcomes evaluated at baseline, 3 months, and 6 months. SETTING: Academic health center. PARTICIPANTS: Thirty-eight (age < 65) AA men who had a stroke or transient ischemic attack and a Barthel index score of >60 were randomly assigned to TEAM (n = 19) or TAU (n = 19). INTERVENTION: Self-management training, delivered in 1 individual and 4 group sessions (over 3 months). MEASURES: Blood pressure, glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c), lipids, medication adherence, weight, and standardized measures of health behaviors (diet, exercise, smoking, substances), depression, and quality of life. Qualitative assessments evaluated the perspectives of TEAM participants. ANALYSIS: T tests for paired differences and nonparametric tests. Thematic content qualitative analysis. RESULTS: Mean age was 52.1 (standard deviation [SD] = 7.4) and mean body mass index was 31.4 (SD = 7.4). Compared to TAU, TEAM participants had significantly lower mean systolic blood pressure by 24 weeks, and there was also improvement in HbA1c and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ( P = .03). Other biomarker and health behaviors were similar between groups. Qualitative results suggested improved awareness of risk factors as well as positive effects of group support.

Influence of Dietary Salt Knowledge, Perceptions, and Beliefs on Consumption Choices after Stroke in Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Previous research on Uganda's poststroke population revealed that their level of dietary salt knowledge did not lead to healthier consumption choices. PURPOSE: Identify barriers and motivators for healthy dietary behaviors and evaluate the understanding of widely accepted salt regulation mechanisms among poststroke patients in Uganda. METHODS: Convergent parallel mixed methods triangulation design comprised a cross-sectional survey (n = 81) and 8 focus group discussions with 7-10 poststroke participants in each group. We assessed participant characteristics and obtained insights into their salt consumption attitudes, perceptions, and knowledge. Qualitative responses were analyzed using an inductive approach with thematic analytic procedures. Relationships between healthy dietary salt compliance, dietary salt knowledge, and participant characteristics were assessed using logistic regression analyses. RESULTS: Healthy dietary salt consumption behaviors were associated with basic salt knowledge (P < .0001), but no association was found between compliance and salt disease-related knowledge (P = .314). Only 20% and 7% obtained health-related salt knowledge from their health facility and educational sources, respectively, whereas 44% obtained this information from media personalities; 92% of participants had no understanding of nutrition labels, and only 25% of the study population consumed potash-an inexpensive salt substitute that is both rich in potassium and low in sodium. CONCLUSION: One barrier to healthy dietary consumption choices among Uganda's stroke survivors is a lack of credible disease-related information. Improving health-care provider stroke-related dietary knowledge in Uganda and encouraging the use of potash as a salt substitute would help reduce hypertension and thereby lower the risk of stroke.

Influence of sodium consumption and associated knowledge on poststroke hypertension in Uganda.

OBJECTIVE: We assessed 24-hour urine sodium levels as an index of dietary salt consumption and its association with dietary salt knowledge and hypertension among poststroke patients with and without a history of hypertension in Uganda. METHODS: A case-control study in which poststroke patients with a history of hypertension (cases, n = 123) were compared to poststroke patients without known hypertension (controls, n = 112). Dietary salt intake was assessed by 24-hour urine sodium, a valid measure of dietary salt consumption. Dietary salt knowledge was determined by questionnaire. The independent relationships among salt knowledge, 24-hour urine sodium, and blood pressure control were assessed using multiple regression analysis. RESULTS: High 24-hour urine sodium (≥8.5 g/d) was 2 times more prevalent among hypertensive poststroke patients than controls (p = 0.002). Patients with minimal poststroke disability who had a choice in determining their diets had higher urine sodium than their more disabled counterparts. Only 43% of the study population had basic dietary salt knowledge, 39% had adequate diet-disease-related knowledge, and 37% had procedural knowledge (report of specific steps being taken to reduce salt consumption). Dietary salt knowledge was similarly poor among cases and controls (p = 0.488) and was not related to education level (p = 0.205). CONCLUSIONS: High urine sodium and high salt-diet preferences were more frequent among poststroke hypertensive patients in Uganda than in their nonhypertensive counterparts. There was, however, no difference in dietary salt knowledge between these groups. The development of educational strategies that include salt-diet preferences may lead to better blood pressure control in this high-risk population.

Challenges in Recruitment for the Study of Noninvasive Brain Stimulation in Stroke: Lessons from Deep Brain Stimulation.

OBJECTIVE: Noninvasive brain stimulation (NIBS) can augment functional recovery following stroke; however, the technique lacks regulatory approval. Low enrollment in NIBS clinical trials is a key roadblock. Here, we pursued evidence to support the prevailing opinion that enrollment in trials of NIBS is even lower than enrollment in trials of invasive, deep brain stimulation (DBS). METHODS: We compared 2 clinical trials in stroke conducted within a single urban hospital system, one employing NIBS and the other using DBS, (1) to identify specific criteria that generate low enrollment rates for NIBS and (2) to devise strategies to increase recruitment with guidance from DBS. RESULTS: Notably, we found that enrollment in the NIBS case study was 5 times lower (2.8%) than the DBS trial (14.5%) (χ(2) = 20.815, P < .0001). Although the number of candidates who met the inclusion criteria was not different (χ(2) = .04, P < .841), exclusion rates differed significantly between the 2 studies (χ(2) = 21.354, P < .0001). Beyond lack of interest, higher exclusion rates in the NIBS study were largely due to exclusion criteria that were not present in the DBS study, including restrictions for recurrent strokes, seizures, and medications. CONCLUSIONS: Based on our findings, we conclude and suggest that by (1) establishing criteria specific to each NIBS modality, (2) adjusting exclusion criteria based on guidance from DBS, and (3) including patients with common contraindications based on a probability of risk, we may increase enrollment and hence significantly impact the feasibility and generalizability of NIBS paradigms, particularly in stroke.

Knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of stroke: a cross-sectional survey in rural and urban Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Information regarding the increasing burden of non-communicable diseases such as stroke is largely unknown among the vulnerable communities. This analysis, which is part of a larger U.S. National Institute of Heath-funded Medical Education Partnership Initiative neurological disorder survey, assessed community knowledge and attitudes on stroke and stroke risk factors. METHODS: A population cross-sectional survey was conducted in urban and rural Mukono, district, central Uganda. Through the systematic sampling method, data were gathered from 377 adult participants who were interviewed about selected aspects of stroke knowledge, attitudes and perception using a pretested structured questionnaire. RESULTS: A total of 377 participants were enrolled (47% urban). The leading risk factors identified by the participants were stress (36.6%) and hypertension (28.9%) respectively. None of the study participants identified cigarette smoking as a stroke risk factor. Seventy six percent of the participants did not recognize stroke as a disease of the brain. CONCLUSION: Stroke knowledge is poor in both rural and urban Uganda. Tailored public health approaches that improve stroke awareness, knowledge and self management approaches are urgently needed to develop effective preventive measures and community response to stroke.