Global epidemiology of heart failure.

Heart failure (HF) is a heterogeneous clinical syndrome marked by substantial morbidity and mortality. The natural history of HF is well established; however, epidemiological data are continually evolving owing to demographic shifts, advances in treatment and variations in access to health care. Although the incidence of HF has stabilized or declined in high-income countries over the past decade, its prevalence continues to increase, driven by an ageing population, an increase in risk factors, the effectiveness of novel therapies and improved survival. This rise in prevalence is increasingly noted among younger adults and is accompanied by a shift towards HF with preserved ejection fraction. However, disparities exist in our epidemiological understanding of HF burden and progression in low-income and middle-income countries owing to the lack of comprehensive data in these regions. Therefore, the current epidemiological landscape of HF highlights the need for periodic surveillance and resource allocation tailored to geographically vulnerable areas. In this Review, we highlight global trends in the burden of HF, focusing on the variations across the spectrum of left ventricular ejection fraction. We also discuss evolving population-based estimates of HF incidence and prevalence, the risk factors for and aetiologies of this disease, and outcomes in different geographical regions and populations.

Prevention and rehabilitation after heart transplantation: A clinical consensus statement of the European Association of Preventive Cardiology, Heart Failure Association of the ESC, and the European Cardio Thoracic Transplant Association, a section of ESOT.

Little is known either about either physical activity patterns, or other lifestyle-related prevention measures in heart transplantation (HTx) recipients. The history of HTx started more than 50 years ago but there are still no guidelines or position papers highlighting the features of prevention and rehabilitation after HTx. The aims of this scientific statement are (i) to explain the importance of prevention and rehabilitation after HTx, and (ii) to promote the factors (modifiable/non-modifiable) that should be addressed after HTx to improve patients' physical capacity, quality of life and survival. All HTx team members have their role to play in the care of these patients and multidisciplinary prevention and rehabilitation programmes designed for transplant recipients. HTx recipients are clearly not healthy disease-free subjects yet they also significantly differ from heart failure patients or those who are supported with mechanical circulatory support. Therefore, prevention and rehabilitation after HTx both need to be specifically tailored to this patient population and be multidisciplinary in nature. Prevention and rehabilitation programmes should be initiated early after HTx and continued during the entire post-transplant journey. This clinical consensus.

Prevention and rehabilitation after heart transplantation: A clinical consensus statement of the European Association of Preventive Cardiology, Heart Failure Association of the ESC, and the European Cardio Thoracic Transplant Association, a section of ESOT.

Little is known either about either physical activity patterns, or other lifestyle-related prevention measures in heart transplantation (HTx) recipients. The history of HTx started more than 50 years ago but there are still no guidelines or position papers highlighting the features of prevention and rehabilitation after HTx. The aims of this scientific statement are (i) to explain the importance of prevention and rehabilitation after HTx, and (ii) to promote the factors (modifiable/non-modifiable) that should be addressed after HTx to improve patients' physical capacity, quality of life and survival. All HTx team members have their role to play in the care of these patients and multidisciplinary prevention and rehabilitation programmes designed for transplant recipients. HTx recipients are clearly not healthy disease-free subjects yet they also significantly differ from heart failure patients or those who are supported with mechanical circulatory support. Therefore, prevention and rehabilitation after HTx both need to be specifically tailored to this patient population and be multidisciplinary in nature. Prevention and rehabilitation programmes should be initiated early after HTx and continued during the entire post-transplant journey. This clinical consensus statement focuses on the importance and the characteristics of prevention and rehabilitation designed for HTx recipients.

Right heart failure with left ventricular assist devices: Preoperative, perioperative and postoperative management strategies. A clinical consensus statement of the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC.

Right heart failure (RHF) following implantation of a left ventricular assist device (LVAD) is a common and potentially serious condition with a wide spectrum of clinical presentations with an unfavourable effect on patient outcomes. Clinical scores that predict the occurrence of right ventricular (RV) failure have included multiple clinical, biochemical, imaging and haemodynamic parameters. However, unless the right ventricle is overtly dysfunctional with end-organ involvement, prediction of RHF post-LVAD implantation is, in most cases, difficult and inaccurate. For these reasons optimization of RV function in every patient is a reasonable practice aiming at preparing the right ventricle for a new and challenging haemodynamic environment after LVAD implantation. To this end, the institution of diuretics, inotropes and even temporary mechanical circulatory support may improve RV function, thereby preparing it for a better adaptation post-LVAD implantation. Furthermore, meticulous management of patients during the perioperative and immediate postoperative period should facilitate identification of RV failure refractory to medication. When RHF occurs late during chronic LVAD support, this is associated with worse long-term outcomes. Careful monitoring of RV function and characterization of the origination deficit should therefore continue throughout the patient's entire follow-up. Despite the useful information provided by the echocardiogram with respect to RV function, right heart catheterization frequently offers additional support for the assessment and optimization of RV function in LVAD-supported patients. In any patient candidate for LVAD therapy, evaluation and treatment of RV function and failure should be assessed in a multidimensional and multidisciplinary manner.

Differences in presentation, diagnosis and management of heart failure in women. A scientific statement of the Heart Failure Association of the ESC.

Despite the progress in the care of individuals with heart failure (HF), important sex disparities in knowledge and management remain, covering all the aspects of the syndrome, from aetiology and pathophysiology to treatment. Important distinctions in phenotypic presentation are widely known, but the mechanisms behind these differences are only partially defined. The impact of sex-specific conditions in the predisposition to HF has gained progressive interest in the HF community. Under-recruitment of women in large randomized clinical trials has continued in the more recent studies despite epidemiological data no longer reporting any substantial difference in the lifetime risk and prognosis between sexes. Target dose of medications and criteria for device eligibility are derived from studies with a large predominance of men, whereas specific information in women is lacking. The present scientific statement encompasses the whole scenario of available evidence on sex-disparities in HF and aims to define the most challenging and urgent residual gaps in the evidence for the scientific and clinical HF communities.

How to tackle therapeutic inertia in heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. A scientific statement of the Heart Failure Association of the ESC.

Guideline-directed medical therapy (GDMT) in patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) reduces morbidity and mortality, but its implementation is often poor in daily clinical practice. Barriers to implementation include clinical and organizational factors that might contribute to clinical inertia, i.e. avoidance/delay of recommended treatment initiation/optimization. The spectrum of strategies that might be applied to foster GDMT implementation is wide, and involves the organizational set-up of heart failure care pathways, tailored drug initiation/optimization strategies increasing the chance of successful implementation, digital tools/telehealth interventions, educational activities and strategies targeting patient/physician awareness, and use of quality registries. This scientific statement by the Heart Failure Association of the ESC provides an overview of the current state of GDMT implementation in HFrEF, clinical and organizational barriers to implementation, and aims at suggesting a comprehensive framework on how to overcome clinical inertia and ultimately improve implementation of GDMT in HFrEF based on up-to-date evidence.

Management of cardiac emergencies in women: a clinical consensus statement of the Association for Acute CardioVascular Care (ACVC), the European Association of Percutaneous Cardiovascular Interventions (EAPCI), the Heart Failure Association (HFA), and the European Heart Rhythm Association (EHRA) of the ESC, and the ESC Working Group on Cardiovascular Pharmacotherapy.

Cardiac emergencies in women, such as acute coronary syndromes, acute heart failure, and cardiac arrest, are associated with a high risk of adverse outcomes and mortality. Although women historically have been significantly underrepresented in clinical studies of these diseases, the guideline-recommended treatment for these emergencies is generally the same for both sexes. Still, women are less likely to receive evidence-based treatment compared to men. Furthermore, specific diseases affecting predominantly or exclusively women, such as spontaneous coronary dissection, myocardial infarction with non-obstructive coronary arteries, takotsubo cardiomyopathy, and peripartum cardiomyopathy, require specialized attention in terms of both diagnosis and management. In this clinical consensus statement, we summarize current knowledge on therapeutic management of these emergencies in women. Key statements and specific quality indicators are suggested to achieve equal and specific care for both sexes. Finally, we discuss several gaps in evidence and encourage further studies designed and powered with adequate attention for sex-specific analysis.

Multidisciplinary care of peripartum heart failure: A scientific statement of the Heart Failure Association of the ESC.

Heart failure is the most common cardiovascular complication during pregnancy and the postpartum period. It is associated with increased risk of maternal morbidity and mortality as well as potentially life-threatening foetal pathology. Management of heart failure in pregnancy requires expert knowledge of cardiovascular disease as well as obstetrics which underscores the importance of multidisciplinary cardio-obstetrics teams in order to optimize diagnosis, treatment and outcome. This includes counselling of women at risk before and during the course of pregnancy in order to strengthen the relationship between medical specialists and patients, as well as to allow patient-centred delivery of care and improve quality of life.

Hepatocardiorenal syndrome in liver cirrhosis: Recognition of a new entity?

Emerging evidence and perspectives have pointed towards the heart playing an important role in hepatorenal syndrome (HRS), outside of conventional understanding that liver cirrhosis is traditionally considered the sole origin of a cascade of pathophysiological mechanisms directly affecting the kidneys in this context. In the absence of established heart disease, cirrhotic cardiomyopathy may occur more frequently in those with liver cirrhosis and kidney disease. It is a specific form of cardiac dysfunction characterized by blunted contractile responsiveness to stress stimuli and altered diastolic relaxation with electrophysiological abnormalities. Despite the clinical description of these potential cardiac-related complications of the liver, the role of the heart has traditionally been an overlooked aspect of circulatory dysfunction in HRS. Yet from a physiological sense, temporality (prior onset) of cardiorenal interactions in HRS and positive effects stemming from portosystemic shunting demonstrated an important role of the heart in the development and progression of kidney dysfunction in cirrhotic patients. In this review, we discuss current concepts surrounding how the heart may influence the development and progression of HRS, and the role of systemic inflammation and endothelial dysfunction causing circulatory dysfunction within this setting. The temporality of heart and kidney dysfunction in HRS will be discussed. For a subgroup of patients who receive portosystemic shunting, the dynamics of cardiorenal interactions following treatment is reviewed. Continued research to determine the unknowns in this topic is anticipated, hopefully to further clarify the intricacies surrounding the liver-heart-kidney connection and improve strategies for management.

Integration of implantable device therapy in patients with heart failure. A clinical consensus statement from the Heart Failure Association (HFA) and European Heart Rhythm Association (EHRA) of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC).

Implantable devices form an integral part of the management of patients with heart failure (HF) and provide adjunctive therapies in addition to cornerstone drug treatment. Although the number of these devices is growing, only few are supported by robust evidence. Current devices aim to improve haemodynamics, improve reverse remodelling, or provide electrical therapy. A number of these devices have guideline recommendations and some have been shown to improve outcomes such as cardiac resynchronization therapy, implantable cardioverter-defibrillators and long-term mechanical support. For others, more evidence is still needed before large-scale implementation can be strongly advised. Of note, devices and drugs can work synergistically in HF as improved disease control with devices can allow for further optimization of drug therapy. Therefore, some devices might already be considered early in the disease trajectory of HF patients, while others might only be reserved for advanced HF. As such, device therapy should be integrated into HF care programmes. Unfortunately, implementation of devices, including those with the greatest evidence, in clinical care pathways is still suboptimal. This clinical consensus document of the Heart Failure Association (HFA) and European Heart Rhythm Association (EHRA) of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) describes the physiological rationale behind device-provided therapy and also device-guided management, offers an overview of current implantable device options recommended by the guidelines and proposes a new integrated model of device therapy as a part of HF care.

Use of sacubitril/valsartan early after CABG.

BACKGROUND: Heart failure (HF) remains a major public health problem with a high mortality and morbidity worldwide. Currently, there is no optimal revascularisation strategy for patients with ischaemic cardiomyopathy despite suggestions that coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) may be superior to medical therapy in improving survival. However, CABG may be associated with substantial risk in HF subjects. We therefore aimed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of the early initiation of sacubitril/valsartan in haemodynamically stabilised patients with HF with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) after early CABG. METHODS: This was an open-label study in which ~80 patients after CABG were randomised either to the early or late initiation of the sacubitril-valsartan. The study included patients >40 years with left ventricular ejection fraction <45% and New York Heart Association (NYHA) class II-IV at the early stage after CABG. Patients underwent intervention, the starting dose of sacubitril/valsartan (24/26 mg or 49/51 mg two times per day). The follow-up took place every 4 weeks except the first visit, which took place in 2 weeks after initiation. The primary endpoint assessed the key safety outcomes, the secondary endpoints were: the quality of life measured, the N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) changes and 6 min walk test (6MWT). RESULTS: In total, 83 patients were screened and 77 patients were enrolled. The majority of patients (84.4%) were in the NYHA class III at randomisation. The number of patients who discontinued the study was low in both groups (2.5%, 5.2%), and renal function, hyperkalaemia and symptomatic hypotension rarely seen in both groups did not differ significantly. The improvement in quality of life and distance at the 6MWT in both groups was significant (p<0.001). The NT-proBNP concentration decreased in both groups, the significant reduction was in the early group (p<0.001) versus the postdischarge group. CONCLUSIONS: The early initiation of sacubitril/valsartan in patients after CABG with HFrEF is safe and effective. Adverse events and permanent discontinuation were low. The NT-proBNP concentration reduced significantly with the early in-hospital initiation.

European Society of Cardiology Core Curriculum for cardio-oncology.

Cardio-oncology is a rapidly growing field of cardiovascular (CV) medicine that has resulted from the continuously increasing clinical demand for specialized CV evaluation, prevention and management of patients suffering or surviving from malignant diseases. Dealing with CV disease in patients with cancer requires special knowledge beyond that included in the general core curriculum for cardiology. Therefore, the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) has developed a special core curriculum for cardio-oncology, a consensus document that defines the level of experience and knowledge required for cardiologists in this particular field. It is structured into 8 chapters, including (i) principles of cancer biology and therapy; (ii) forms and definitions of cancer therapy-related cardiovascular toxicity (CTR-CVT); (iii) risk stratification, prevention and monitoring protocols for CTR-CVT; (iv) diagnosis and management of CV disease in patients with cancer; (v) long-term survivorship programmes and cardio-oncology rehabilitation; (vi) multidisciplinary team management of special populations; (vii) organization of cardio-oncology services; (viii) research in cardio-oncology. The core curriculum aims at promoting standardization and harmonization of training and evaluation in cardio-oncology, while it further provides the ground for an ESC certification programme designed to recognize the competencies of certified specialists.

Pre-discharge and early post-discharge management of patients hospitalized for acute heart failure: A scientific statement by the Heart Failure Association of the ESC.

Acute heart failure is a major cause of urgent hospitalizations. These are followed by marked increases in death and rehospitalization rates, which then decline exponentially though they remain higher than in patients without a recent hospitalization. Therefore, optimal management of patients with acute heart failure before discharge and in the early post-discharge phase is critical. First, it may prevent rehospitalizations through the early detection and effective treatment of residual or recurrent congestion, the main manifestation of decompensation. Second, initiation at pre-discharge and titration to target doses in the early post-discharge period, of guideline-directed medical therapy may improve both short- and long-term outcomes. Third, in chronic heart failure, medical treatment is often left unchanged, so the acute heart failure hospitalization presents an opportunity for implementation of therapy. The aim of this scientific statement by the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology is to summarize recent findings that have implications for clinical management both in the pre-discharge and the early post-discharge phase after a hospitalization for acute heart failure.

Patient phenotype profiling in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction to guide therapeutic decision making. A scientific statement of the Heart Failure Association, the European Heart Rhythm Association of the European Society of Cardiology, and the European Society of Hypertension.

Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) represents a highly heterogeneous clinical syndrome affected in its development and progression by many comorbidities. The left ventricular diastolic dysfunction may be a manifestation of various combinations of cardiovascular, metabolic, pulmonary, renal, and geriatric conditions. Thus, in addition to treatment with sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors in all patients, the most effective method of improving clinical outcomes may be therapy tailored to each patient's clinical profile. To better outline a phenotype-based approach for the treatment of HFpEF, in this joint position paper, the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology, the European Heart Rhythm Association and the European Hypertension Society, have developed an algorithm to identify the most common HFpEF phenotypes and identify the evidence-based treatment strategy for each, while taking into account the complexities of multiple comorbidities and polypharmacy.

Acute heart failure and valvular heart disease: A scientific statement of the Heart Failure Association, the Association for Acute CardioVascular Care and the European Association of Percutaneous Cardiovascular Interventions of the European Society of Cardiology.

Acute heart failure (AHF) represents a broad spectrum of disease states, resulting from the interaction between an acute precipitant and a patient's underlying cardiac substrate and comorbidities. Valvular heart disease (VHD) is frequently associated with AHF. AHF may result from several precipitants that add an acute haemodynamic stress superimposed on a chronic valvular lesion or may occur as a consequence of a new significant valvular lesion. Regardless of the mechanism, clinical presentation may vary from acute decompensated heart failure to cardiogenic shock. Assessing the severity of VHD as well as the correlation between VHD severity and symptoms may be difficult in patients with AHF because of the rapid variation in loading conditions, concomitant destabilization of the associated comorbidities and the presence of combined valvular lesions. Evidence-based interventions targeting VHD in settings of AHF have yet to be identified, as patients with severe VHD are often excluded from randomized trials in AHF, so results from these trials do not generalize to those with VHD. Furthermore, there are not rigorously conducted randomized controlled trials in the setting of VHD and AHF, most of the data coming from observational studies. Thus, distinct to chronic settings, current guidelines are very elusive when patients with severe VHD present with AHF, and a clear-cut strategy could not be yet defined. Given the paucity of evidence in this subset of AHF patients, the aim of this scientific statement is to describe the epidemiology, pathophysiology, and overall treatment approach for patients with VHD who present with AHF.

Heart failure diagnosis in the general community - Who, how and when? A clinical consensus statement of the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC).

A significant proportion of patients experience delays in the diagnosis of heart failure due to the non-specific signs and symptoms of the syndrome. Diagnostic tools such as measurement of natriuretic peptide concentrations are fundamentally important when screening for heart failure, yet are frequently under-utilized. This clinical consensus statement provides a diagnostic framework for general practitioners and non-cardiology community-based physicians to recognize, investigate and risk-stratify patients presenting in the community with possible heart failure.

Worsening of chronic heart failure: definition, epidemiology, management and prevention. A clinical consensus statement by the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology.

Episodes of worsening symptoms and signs characterize the clinical course of patients with chronic heart failure (HF). These events are associated with poorer quality of life, increased risks of hospitalization and death and are a major burden on healthcare resources. They usually require diuretic therapy, either administered intravenously or by escalation of oral doses or with combinations of different diuretic classes. Additional treatments may also have a major role, including initiation of guideline-recommended medical therapy (GRMT). Hospital admission is often necessary but treatment in the emergency service or in outpatient clinics or by primary care physicians has become increasingly used. Prevention of first and recurring episodes of worsening HF is an essential component of HF treatment and this may be achieved through early and rapid administration of GRMT. The aim of the present clinical consensus statement by the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology is to provide an update on the definition, clinical characteristics, management and prevention of worsening HF in clinical practice.

Congestion in heart failure: a circulating biomarker-based perspective. A review from the Biomarkers Working Group of the Heart Failure Association, European Society of Cardiology.

Congestion is a cardinal sign of heart failure (HF). In the past, it was seen as a homogeneous epiphenomenon that identified patients with advanced HF. However, current evidence shows that congestion in HF varies in quantity and distribution. This updated view advocates for a congestive-driven classification of HF according to onset (acute vs. chronic), regional distribution (systemic vs. pulmonary), compartment of distribution (intravascular vs. extravascular), and clinical vs. subclinical. Thus, this review will focus on the utility of circulating biomarkers for assessing and managing the different fluid overload phenotypes. This discussion focused on the clinical utility of the natriuretic peptides, carbohydrate antigen 125 (also called mucin 16), bio-adrenomedullin and mid-regional pro-adrenomedullin, ST2 (also known as interleukin-1 receptor-like 1), cluster of differentiation 146, troponin, C-terminal pro-endothelin-1, and parameters of haemoconcentration. The utility of circulation biomarkers on top of clinical evaluation, haemodynamics, and imaging needs to be better determined by dedicated studies. Some multiparametric frameworks in which these tools contribute to management are proposed.

Prevention of sudden death in heart failure with reduced ejection fraction: do we still need an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator for primary prevention?

Sudden death is a devastating complication of heart failure (HF). Current guidelines recommend an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) for prevention of sudden death in patients with HF and reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) specifically those with a left ventricular ejection fraction ≤35% after at least 3 months of optimized HF treatment. The benefit of ICD in patients with symptomatic HFrEF caused by coronary artery disease has been well documented; however, the evidence for a benefit of prophylactic ICD implantation in patients with HFrEF of non-ischaemic aetiology is less strong. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers, beta-blockers (BB), and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (MRA) block the deleterious actions of angiotensin II, norepinephrine, and aldosterone, respectively. Neprilysin inhibition potentiates the actions of endogenous natriuretic peptides that mitigate adverse ventricular remodelling. BB, MRA, angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor (ARNI) have a favourable effect on reduction of sudden cardiac death in HFrEF. Recent data suggest a beneficial effect of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) in reducing serious ventricular arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death in patients with HFrEF. So, in the current era of new drugs for HFrEF and with the optimal use of disease-modifying therapies (BB, MRA, ARNI and SGLT2i), we might need to reconsider the need and timing for use of ICD as primary prevention of sudden death, especially in HF of non-ischaemic aetiology.

Cardiac remodelling - Part 2: Clinical, imaging and laboratory findings. A review from the Study Group on Biomarkers of the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology.

In patients with heart failure, the beneficial effects of drug and device therapies counteract to some extent ongoing cardiac damage. According to the net balance between these two factors, cardiac geometry and function may improve (reverse remodelling, RR) and even completely normalize (remission), or vice versa progressively deteriorate (adverse remodelling, AR). RR or remission predict a better prognosis, while AR has been associated with worsening clinical status and outcomes. The remodelling process ultimately involves all cardiac chambers, but has been traditionally evaluated in terms of left ventricular volumes and ejection fraction. This is the second part of a review paper by the Study Group on Biomarkers of the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology dedicated to ventricular remodelling. This document examines the proposed criteria to diagnose RR and AR, their prevalence and prognostic value, and the variables predicting remodelling in patients managed according to current guidelines. Much attention will be devoted to RR in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction because most studies on cardiac remodelling focused on this setting.