READ-ing antimicrobial stewardship in the Caribbean: a tri-nation document review.

Objective: To explore the antimicrobial stewardship policy landscape in three English-speaking Caribbean countries (Barbados, Guyana, and Saint Lucia) and examine the key enablers and challenges to the design and implementation of formal antimicrobial stewardship programs. Methods: A document analysis that searched for existing policy, communications, and contributions on antimicrobial stewardship from these three countries, adapting the READ (Ready materials; Extract data; Analyze data; Distill findings) approach, a systematic procedure for health policy document review. Results: The search strategy identified 726 initial records. Of those, 15 (2%) met the inclusion criteria. The analysis included official policy documents (n = 3), scholarly works/reviews (n = 3), advocacy documents (n = 2), news articles (n = 4), and confidential reports (n = 3) from the three countries. Conclusions: Critical matters such as cross-programmatic coordination, the significance of individual action, and the need for bidirectional knowledge discourse are prominent in optimizing antimicrobial stewardship adaptation in these countries. CARICOM regional coordination has positively impacted the integration of infection prevention and control with antimicrobial stewardship across this knowledge network.

Driving multisectoral antimicrobial resistance action in South America: Lessons learned from implementing an enhanced tripartite AMR country self-assessment tool.

As part of an innovative Tripartite-EU collaboration Project that supports seven South American countries, a Landscape Analysis Tool (LAT) was developed and implemented to collect data to complement the Tripartite AMR Country Self-Assessment Survey (TrACSS) process. The LAT enables collection of broader and deeper information to guide development of priority One Health activities, and strengthen national action plans to combat antimicrobial resistance. The Project developed the tool, trained a consultant pool in its use, and implemented it in conjunction with multi-sectoral country teams. The main results were seven priority-informed country workplans that proposed specific activities in line with the Strategic Objectives of each country's national action plan. LAT implementation clearly showed that the tool is a strong complement to the TrACSS process and that there can be considerable benefit to the process of collecting additional data layers, especially to strengthen country ownership of AMR-related information and solidifying multisectoral engagement. Countries elsewhere might consider implementing this complementary tool - either once to establish a baseline - or periodically to gain a better ongoing understanding of the situation on the ground.

READ-ing antimicrobial stewardship in the Caribbean: a tri-nation document review / El método READ y la administración de antimicrobianos en el Caribe: una revisión trinacional de documentos / Uso racional de antibióticos no Caribe com base na abordagem READ: revisão de documentos de três países

ABSTRACT Objective. To explore the antimicrobial stewardship policy landscape in three English-speaking Caribbean countries (Barbados, Guyana, and Saint Lucia) and examine the key enablers and challenges to the design and implementation of formal antimicrobial stewardship programs. Methods. A document analysis that searched for existing policy, communications, and contributions on antimicrobial stewardship from these three countries, adapting the READ (Ready materials; Extract data; Analyze data; Distill findings) approach, a systematic procedure for health policy document review. Results. The search strategy identified 726 initial records. Of those, 15 (2%) met the inclusion criteria. The analysis included official policy documents (n = 3), scholarly works/reviews (n = 3), advocacy documents (n = 2), news articles (n = 4), and confidential reports (n = 3) from the three countries. Conclusions. Critical matters such as cross-programmatic coordination, the significance of individual action, and the need for bidirectional knowledge discourse are prominent in optimizing antimicrobial stewardship adaptation in these countries. CARICOM regional coordination has positively impacted the integration of infection prevention and control with antimicrobial stewardship across this knowledge network.

RESUMEN Objetivo. Explorar el panorama de las políticas de optimización del uso de antimicrobianos en tres países caribeños de habla inglesa (Barbados, Guyana y Santa Lucía) y examinar los principales facilitadores y desafíos para elaborar y aplicar programas formales de optimización del uso de antimicrobianos. Métodos. Se adaptó el método READ (acrónimo en inglés de "materiales listos; extraer los datos; analizar los datos; destilar los resultados"), un procedimiento sistemático para la revisión de documentos sobre políticas de salud, a fin de realizar un análisis de documentos que buscó las políticas, comunicaciones y contribuciones existentes sobre la optimización del uso de antimicrobianos en esos tres países. Resultados. La estrategia de búsqueda permitió localizar 726 documentos iniciales. De ellos, 15 (el 2%) cumplían los criterios de inclusión. El análisis abarcó documentos oficiales de políticas (n = 3), trabajos académicos o revisiones (n = 3), documentos de promoción de la causa (n = 2), artículos de noticias (n = 4) e informes confidenciales (n = 3) de los tres países. Conclusiones. Varios aspectos críticos, como la coordinación interprogramática, la importancia de la acción individual y la necesidad de una comunicación bidireccional del conocimiento, son preponderantes para adaptar de la mejor manera la optimización del uso de antimicrobianos en estos países. La coordinación regional de la CARICOM ha influido positivamente para integrar la prevención y el control de infecciones con la optimización del uso de antimicrobianos en toda esta red de conocimientos.

RESUMO Objetivo. Explorar o cenário da política para uso racional de antibióticos em três países anglófonos do Caribe (Barbados, Guiana e Santa Lúcia) e examinar os principais fatores facilitadores e desafios para a elaboração e implementação de programas formais de uso racional de antibióticos. Métodos. Análise de documentos em busca de políticas, comunicações e contribuições existentes sobre o uso racional de antibióticos nesses três países, adaptando a abordagem READ (sigla em inglês para preparar materiais, extrair e analisar dados e destacar os principais achados), um procedimento sistemático para a revisão de documentos de políticas de saúde. Resultados. A estratégia de busca identificou 726 registros iniciais. Desses, 15 (2%) atenderam aos critérios de inclusão. A análise incluiu documentos oficiais de políticas (n = 3), trabalhos acadêmicos/revisões (n = 3), documentos em defesa da causa (n = 2), reportagens (n = 4) e relatórios confidenciais (n = 3) dos três países. Conclusões. Questões críticas, como a coordenação interprogramática, a importância da ação individual e a necessidade de um discurso bidirecional de conhecimento, se destacam na adaptação otimizada das diretrizes de uso racional de antibióticos nesses países. A coordenação regional da Comunidade do Caribe (CARICOM) contribuiu para integrar a prevenção e o controle de infecções ao uso racional de antibióticos em toda essa rede de conhecimento.

Reporting on antibiotic use patterns using the WHO Access, Watch, Reserve classification in the Caribbean.

Objective: To assess antibiotic use in three hospitals in three Caribbean countries based on data from 2013 and 2018 using the World Health Organization Essential Medicines List "Access, Watch, Reserve" (AWaRe) classification. Methods: A retrospective observational study, which analyzed the World Health Organization Point Prevalence Survey data from three hospitals in three Caribbean countries, to examine proportional AWaRe group antibiotic use for the top ten inpatient indications. The Access-to-Watch ratio was calculated, and the top three antibiotics prescribed in each hospital were determined. Results: The final data set included 376 prescriptions for the top ten indications in 766 inpatients. The hospital antibiotic use point prevalence for Hospital 1 was 35.6%, Hospital 2 was 48.6%, and Hospital 3 was 47.1%. The Access-to-Watch ratio for the top ten indications was 2.45, 1.36, and 1.72 in the three hospitals. Access group prevalence was 71.0% in Hospital 1, 57.6% in Hospital 2, and 63.2% in Hospital 3. There were no Reserve antibiotics prescribed in any of the institutions. The most common indication for Watch prescription was skin and soft tissue infections in Hospital 1 and pneumonia in Hospital 2 and 3. Conclusions: This study draws urgent attention to evidence of a high proportion of Watch antibiotic prescribing and lack of Reserve group antibiotics in three Caribbean countries. This research provides data that may inform national formulary and antimicrobial stewardship policy-making across the settings analyzed and the wider region.

Increased Detection of Carbapenemase-Producing Enterobacterales Bacteria in Latin America and the Caribbean during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

During 2020-2021, countries in Latin America and the Caribbean reported clinical emergence of carbapenemase-producing Enterobacterales that had not been previously characterized locally, increased prevalence of carbapenemases that had previously been detected, and co-production of multiple carbapenemases in some isolates. These increases were likely fueled by changes related to the COVID-19 pandemic, including empirical antibiotic use for potential COVID-19-related bacterial infections and healthcare limitations resulting from the rapid rise in COVID-19 cases. Strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance, epidemiologic research, and infection prevention and control programs and antimicrobial stewardship in clinical settings can help prevent emergence and transmission of carbapenemase-producing Enterobacterales.

Effects of screening strategies to detect carbapenem-resistant gram-negative bacteria: A systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: This systematic review aims to summarize the evidence on the effects of screening strategies to detect carbapenem-resistant gram-negative bacteria (Enterobacteriaceae, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa). METHODS: Eligible studies were randomized trials, non-randomized controlled trials, controlled before-after studies, and interrupted time series. We conducted searches in CENTRAL, PUBMED, Embase, Epistemonikos, and in multiple databases available in the Virtual Health Library (LILACS, Scielo, WHO IBECS, and PAHO IBECS). All the searches covered the period until 4 June 2021. No date or language restrictions were applied. Two reviewers independently evaluated potentially eligible studies according to predefined selection criteria, and extracted data on study characteristics, methods, outcomes, and risk of bias, using a predesigned standardized form. When possible, we intended to conduct meta-analyses using a random-effect model. We assessed the certainty of the evidence (CoE) and summarized the results using the GRADE approach. RESULTS: Our search strategy yielded 57,451 references. No randomized trials were identified. Sixteen studies (one controlled before-after study and 15 interrupted time series) met our inclusion criteria and were included in the review. Most studies were conducted in tertiary care general hospitals from the United States, Europe, and Asia. Eleven studies included adult patients hospitalized in general wards and intensive care units, one was carried out in a neonatal intensive care unit, two in hematology or oncology units, and one in a solid organ transplantation department. Eleven studies were conducted in the setting of an outbreak. Regarding the detection strategy used, all studies included screening strategies for high-risk patients at the moment of admission and 7 studies reported a contact surveillance strategy. Most studies were conducted in settings where infection prevention and control measures were concomitantly installed or reinforced. Data were not suitable for meta-analysis, so the results were presented as a narrative synthesis. Most studies showed a decline in the prevalence of both infection and colonization rates after the implementation of a policy of active surveillance, but the CoE is low. Screening strategies may result in little to no difference in the risk of all-cause mortality and the length of hospital stay. CONCLUSIONS: Existing evidence may favor the use of surveillance culture to carbapenem-resistant gram-negative bacteria, but its quality is poor, so solid conclusions cannot be drawn. Well-conducted randomized trials or high-quality quasi-experimental studies are needed to improve the certainty of the existing evidence. These studies should assess the effect of the addition of screening strategies as a single intervention and measure clinically important outcomes such as infection, length of hospital stay, and mortality.

Point prevalence survey of antibiotic use in hospitals in Latin American countries.

BACKGROUND: Point prevalence surveys (PPSs) on antibiotic use are useful for understanding different aspects related to prescription patterns in hospitals. METHODS: An adaptation of the WHO methodology for a PPS on antibiotic use was applied. Hospital wards were divided into medical (MED), surgical (SUR), ICUs, gynaecology and obstetrics (GO), high-risk (HR) and mixed wards (MIX). A web application (RedCap©) through a mobile device was used for data collection. RESULTS: Between December 2018 and August 2019, 5444 patients in 33 hospitals in five countries were included (10 hospitals in Cuba, 7 in Paraguay, 6 in El Salvador, 5 in Mexico and 5 in Peru). Of these patients, 54.6% received at least one antibiotic, with variations between and within hospitals and countries. Antibiotics were more frequently used in ICUs (67.2%), SUR (64.5%) and MED wards (54.2%), with 51.2% of antibiotics prescribed for community-acquired infections (CAIs), 22.9% for healthcare-associated infections (HAIs), 11.1% for surgical prophylaxis and 6.1% for unknown reasons. Adherence to guidelines was observed in 68.6% of cases (72.8% for CAIs, 72.4% for HAIs and 44.3% for prophylaxis). Third-generation cephalosporins were the class of antibiotics most frequently used (26.8%), followed by carbapenems (10.3%) and fluoroquinolones (8%). Targeted treatments were achieved in 17.3% of cases. CONCLUSIONS: Antibiotic use was generally higher than that published in other studies. There is an urgent need to promote and strengthen the antimicrobial stewardship programmes in Latin America.

Reporting on antibiotic use patterns using the WHO Access, Watch, Reserve classification in the Caribbean / Presentación de informes sobre los patrones de consumo de antibióticos mediante la clasificación de acceso, control y reserva (AWaRe) de la OMS en el Caribe / Relatório sobre padrões de uso de antibióticos no Caribe usando a classificação Acesso, Vigilância e Reserva da OMS

ABSTRACT Objective. To assess antibiotic use in three hospitals in three Caribbean countries based on data from 2013 and 2018 using the World Health Organization Essential Medicines List "Access, Watch, Reserve" (AWaRe) classification. Methods. A retrospective observational study, which analyzed the World Health Organization Point Prevalence Survey data from three hospitals in three Caribbean countries, to examine proportional AWaRe group antibiotic use for the top ten inpatient indications. The Access-to-Watch ratio was calculated, and the top three antibiotics prescribed in each hospital were determined. Results. The final data set included 376 prescriptions for the top ten indications in 766 inpatients. The hospital antibiotic use point prevalence for Hospital 1 was 35.6%, Hospital 2 was 48.6%, and Hospital 3 was 47.1%. The Access-to-Watch ratio for the top ten indications was 2.45, 1.36, and 1.72 in the three hospitals. Access group prevalence was 71.0% in Hospital 1, 57.6% in Hospital 2, and 63.2% in Hospital 3. There were no Reserve antibiotics prescribed in any of the institutions. The most common indication for Watch prescription was skin and soft tissue infections in Hospital 1 and pneumonia in Hospital 2 and 3. Conclusions. This study draws urgent attention to evidence of a high proportion of Watch antibiotic prescribing and lack of Reserve group antibiotics in three Caribbean countries. This research provides data that may inform national formulary and antimicrobial stewardship policy-making across the settings analyzed and the wider region.

RESUMEN Objetivo. Evaluar el consumo de antibióticos en tres hospitales de tres países del Caribe según datos del período 2013-2018 mediante la clasificación de acceso, control y reserva (AWaRe, por su sigla en inglés) de la lista de medicamentos esenciales de la Organización Mundial de la Salud. Métodos. Se realizó un estudio observacional retrospectivo, que analizó los datos de la encuesta de prevalencia puntual de la Organización Mundial de la Salud de tres hospitales en tres países del Caribe, a fin de evaluar el consumo proporcional de antibióticos por grupo de la clasificación AWaRe para las diez principales indicaciones en pacientes hospitalizados. Se calculó la relación entre los grupos de acceso y de control y se determinó cuáles eran los tres principales antibióticos prescritos en cada hospital. Resultados. El conjunto final de datos incluyó 376 recetas para las diez indicaciones principales en 766 pacientes hospitalizados. La prevalencia puntual del consumo de antibióticos en el hospital 1 fue 35,6%, en el hospital 2 fue 48,6% y en el hospital 3 fue 47,1%. La relación entre los grupos de acceso y de control correspondientes a las diez principales indicaciones fue 2,45, 1,36 y 1,72 en los tres hospitales. La prevalencia del grupo de acceso fue 71,0% en el hospital 1, 57,6% en el hospital 2 y 63,2% en el hospital 3. No se prescribieron antibióticos del grupo de reserva en ninguna de las instituciones. La indicación más común para la prescripción de antibióticos en el grupo de control fue infecciones en la piel y los tejidos blandos en el hospital 1 y neumonía en los hospitales 2 y 3. Conclusiones. Este estudio busca llamar la atención urgentemente sobre la evidencia de una alta proporción de prescripción de antibióticos del grupo de control y la carencia de antibióticos del grupo de reserva en tres países del Caribe. Esta investigación proporciona datos que pueden fundamentar el formulario nacional y la elaboración de políticas para la optimización del uso de antimicrobianos en los entornos analizados y en la región en general.

RESUMO Objetivo. Avaliar o uso de antibióticos em três hospitais de três países do Caribe, com base em dados de 2013 e 2018, usando a classificação "Acesso, Vigilância e Reserva" (AWaRe) da Lista de Medicamentos Essenciais da Organização Mundial da Saúde. Métodos. Estudo observacional retrospectivo com análise de dados do Estudo de Prevalência Pontual da Organização Mundial da Saúde, coletados em três hospitais de três países do Caribe para examinar o uso proporcional de antibióticos dos grupos AWaRe para as dez indicações mais frequentes em pacientes internados. A razão entre os grupos Acesso e Vigilância foi calculada e determinou-se quais eram os três antibióticos mais prescritos em cada hospital. Resultados. O conjunto final de dados incluiu 376 medicamentos prescritos para as dez indicações mais frequentes em 766 pacientes internados. A prevalência pontual de uso de antibióticos foi de 35,6% no hospital 1, 48,6% no hospital 2 e 47,1% no hospital 3. A razão entre Acesso e Vigilância nas dez indicações mais frequentes foi 2,45, 1,36, e 1,72 nos três hospitais. A prevalência do grupo Acesso foi de 71,0% no hospital 1, 57,6% no hospital 2 e 63,2% no hospital 3. Nenhum antibiótico da categoria Reserva foi prescrito em nenhuma das instituições. A indicação mais comum dos medicamentos prescritos no grupo Vigilância foram infecções de pele e tecidos moles no hospital 1 e pneumonia nos hospitais 2 e 3. Conclusões. Este estudo chama urgentemente a atenção para evidências de uma grande proporção de antibióticos prescritos no grupo Vigilância e a carência de antibióticos do grupo Reserva em três países do Caribe. Esta pesquisa fornece dados que podem guiar a criação de políticas para o formulário terapêutico nacional e o uso racional de antimicrobianos nos cenários analisados e na região como um todo.

Antibiotic prophylaxis for surgical procedures: a scoping review.

OBJECTIVES: To map the current evidence on surgical antibiotic prophylaxis (SAP) administration and identify knowledge gaps in the literature available in this field. METHODS: The PubMed, Cochrane Library, Epistemonikos, and Health Systems Evidence databases were searched from January 2015 to March 2020 for systematic reviews published in English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish. RESULTS: Eighty-three systematic reviews were included, the quality of the reviews was assessed using AMSTAR 2, and data were extracted for all primary outcomes. Perioperative antibiotic administration, the use of first generation cephalosporins, and surgical site infection (SSI) were the most commonly reported for timing of antibiotic administration, drug class, and primary outcome, respectively. Findings showed that, overall, SAP may reduce SSIs compared with a placebo or with no SAP. Results suggested that intraoperative SAP may lower SSI, while postoperative SAP did not show a statistically significant difference. CONCLUSIONS: Findings have confirmed the role of SAP in reducing postoperative SSI across various surgeries and do not support the use of antibiotics after surgery to prevent infections. The findings of this scoping review have enhanced the evidence base that can inform decisions regarding the development of global guidelines for the prevention of SSI. However, high-quality systematic reviews and research reflecting diverse populations and settings are needed.

Antibiotics and antimicrobial resistance in the COVID-19 era: Perspective from resource-limited settings.

The dissemination of COVID-19 around the globe has been followed by an increased consumption of antibiotics. This is related to the concern for bacterial superinfection in COVID-19 patients. The identification of bacterial pathogens is challenging in low and middle income countries (LMIC), as there are no readily-available and cost-effective clinical or biological markers that can effectively discriminate between bacterial and viral infections. Fortunately, faced with the threat of COVID-19 spread, there has been a growing awareness of the importance of antimicrobial stewardship programs, as well as infection prevention and control measures that could help reduce the microbial load and hence circulation of pathogens, with a reduction in dissemination of antimicrobial resistance. These measures should be improved particularly in developing countries. Studies need to be conducted to evaluate the worldwide evolution of antimicrobial resistance during the COVID-19 pandemic, because pathogens do not respect borders. This issue takes on even greater importance in developing countries, where data on resistance patterns are scarce, conditions for infectious pathogen transmission are optimal, and treatment resources are suboptimal.

WHO global antimicrobial resistance surveillance for Neisseria gonorrhoeae 2017-18: a retrospective observational study.

BACKGROUND: Gonorrhoea and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in Neisseria gonorrhoeae are major health concerns globally. Increased global surveillance of gonococcal AMR is essential. We aimed to describe the 2017-18 data from WHO's global gonococcal AMR surveillance, and to discuss priorities essential for the effective management and control of gonorrhoea. METHODS: We did a retrospective observational study of the AMR data of gonococcal isolates reported to WHO by 73 countries in 2017-18. WHO recommends that each country collects at least 100 gonococcal isolates per year, and that quantitative methods to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration of antimicrobials, interpreted by internationally standardised resistance breakpoints, are used. FINDINGS: In 2017-18, 73 countries provided AMR data for one or more drug. Decreased susceptibility or resistance to ceftriaxone was reported by 21 (31%) of 68 reporting countries and to cefixime by 24 (47%) of 51 reporting countries. Resistance to azithromycin was reported by 51 (84%) of 61 reporting countries and to ciprofloxacin by all 70 (100%) reporting countries. The annual proportion of decreased susceptibility or resistance across countries was 0-21% to ceftriaxone and 0-22% to cefixime, and that of resistance was 0-60% to azithromycin and 0-100% to ciprofloxacin. The number of countries reporting gonococcal AMR and resistant isolates, and the number of examined isolates, have increased since 2015-16. Surveillance remains scarce in central America and the Caribbean and eastern Europe, and in the WHO African, Eastern Mediterranean, and South-East Asian regions. INTERPRETATION: In many countries, ciprofloxacin resistance was exceedingly high, azithromycin resistance was increasing, and decreased susceptibility or resistance to ceftriaxone and cefixime continued to emerge. WHO's global surveillance of gonococcal AMR needs to expand internationally to provide imperative data for national and international management guidelines and public health policies. Improved prevention, early diagnosis, treatment of index patients and partners, enhanced surveillance (eg, infection, AMR, treatment failures, and antimicrobial use or misuse), and increased knowledge on antimicrobial selection, stewardship, and pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics are essential. The development of rapid, accurate, and affordable point-of-care gonococcal diagnostic tests, new antimicrobials, and gonococcal vaccines is imperative. FUNDING: None.

Antibiotic prophylaxis for surgical procedures: a scoping review / La profilaxis antibiótica para procedimientos quirúrgicos: una revisión exploratoria / Antibioticoprofilaxia para procedimentos cirúrgicos: uma revisão de escopo

ABSTRACT Objectives. To map the current evidence on surgical antibiotic prophylaxis (SAP) administration and identify knowledge gaps in the literature available in this field. Methods. The PubMed, Cochrane Library, Epistemonikos, and Health Systems Evidence databases were searched from January 2015 to March 2020 for systematic reviews published in English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish. Results. Eighty-three systematic reviews were included, the quality of the reviews was assessed using AMSTAR 2, and data were extracted for all primary outcomes. Perioperative antibiotic administration, the use of first generation cephalosporins, and surgical site infection (SSI) were the most commonly reported for timing of antibiotic administration, drug class, and primary outcome, respectively. Findings showed that, overall, SAP may reduce SSIs compared with a placebo or with no SAP. Results suggested that intraoperative SAP may lower SSI, while postoperative SAP did not show a statistically significant difference. Conclusions. Findings have confirmed the role of SAP in reducing postoperative SSI across various surgeries and do not support the use of antibiotics after surgery to prevent infections. The findings of this scoping review have enhanced the evidence base that can inform decisions regarding the development of global guidelines for the prevention of SSI. However, high-quality systematic reviews and research reflecting diverse populations and settings are needed.

RESUMEN Objetivos. Trazar un mapa de la evidencia actual sobre la administración de profilaxis antibiótica quirúrgica e identificar lagunas de conocimiento en la bibliografía disponible en este campo. Métodos. Se realizaron búsquedas en las bases de datos PubMed, Cochrane Library, Epistemonikos y Health Systems Evidence desde enero del 2015 hasta marzo del 2020 para obtener revisiones sistemáticas publicadas en inglés, francés, portugués y español. Resultados. Se incluyeron ochenta y tres revisiones sistemáticas, se evaluó la calidad de las revisiones con AMSTAR 2 y se extrajeron los datos de todos los resultados primarios. Se notificó con mayor frecuencia la administración de antibióticos perioperatorios, el uso de cefalosporinas de primera generación y la infección de sitio quirúrgico en relación con los tiempos de administración de los antibióticos, el tipo de medicamento y el resultado principal, respectivamente. Los resultados demostraron que, en términos generales, la profilaxis antibiótica quirúrgica puede reducir la infección de sitio quirúrgico en comparación con un placebo o la falta de profilaxis. Los resultados sugirieron que la profilaxis antibiótica transoperatoria puede reducir la infección de sitio quirúrgico, si bien la profilaxis antibiótica posoperatoria no mostró una diferencia estadísticamente significativa. Conclusiones. Los resultados confirman la función de la profilaxis antibiótica quirúrgica en la reducción de la infección posoperatoria de sitio quirúrgico en diversas operaciones quirúrgicas y no avalan el uso de antibióticos después de la cirugía para prevenir infecciones. Los resultados de esta revisión exploratoria han contribuido a la base empírica que puede fundamentar decisiones relacionadas con la formulación de directrices mundiales para la prevención de infección de sitio quirúrgico. Sin embargo, se necesitan revisiones sistemáticas e investigación de calidad que representen poblaciones y entornos diversos.

RESUMO Objetivo. Mapear as evidências atuais em administração de antibioticoprofilaxia cirúrgica e identificar as lacunas de conhecimento na literatura existente nesta área. Métodos. Foram realizadas buscas nos repositórios PubMed, Cochrane Library, Epistemonikos e Health Systems Evidence de janeiro de 2015 a março de 2020, limitadas a revisões sistemáticas publicadas em espanhol, francês, inglês e português. Resultados. Oitenta e três revisões sistemáticas foram incluídas. A qualidade das revisões foi avaliada com o uso do instrumento AMSTAR 2. Foram extraídos dados para todos os desfechos primários. O período perioperatório foi o momento de aplicação da antibioticoprofilaxia mais comumente relatado; cefalosporinas de primeira geração, a classe terapêutica mais comumente utilizada; e infecção do sítio cirúrgico (ISC), o desfecho primário mais comumente descrito. Os achados desta revisão demonstram que, em geral, a antibioticoprofilaxia cirúrgica pode reduzir a ocorrência de ISC quando comparada ao placebo ou à não realização de antibioticoprofilaxia. Os resultados sugerem que a antibioticoprofilaxia cirúrgica transoperatória pode reduzir a ocorrência de ISC, embora a profilaxia pós-operatória não tenha demonstrado diferença estatisticamente significativa. Conclusões. Este estudo confirma o papel da antibioticoprofilaxia cirúrgica em reduzir ISC pós-operatória em diversos procedimentos cirúrgicos, mas não respalda o uso de antibióticos no pós-operatório para prevenir infecções. Os resultados desta revisão de escopo reforçam o corpo de evidências para subsidiar decisões ao se elaborar diretrizes globais para a prevenção de ISC. Porém, são necessárias revisões sistemáticas de alta qualidade e pesquisas em populações e cenários diversos.

[Evolution of the performance of Latin America Reference Laboratories in the detection of mechanisms of antimicrobial resistanceEvolução do desempenho dos Laboratórios de Referência na América Latina na detecção de mecanismos de resistência antimicrobiana]. / Evolución del desempeño de Laboratorios de Referencia de América Latina en la detección de mecanismos de resistencia a los antimicrobianos.

OBJECTIVE: The objective is to present the results of the Latin American Program for Quality Assurance in Bacteriology and Antimicrobial Resistance (LA-EQAS) between 2000 and 2018 and the evolution of the detection of resistance mechanisms with clinical impact. METHODS: The participating National Reference Laboratories (NRLs) received 25 surveys with 10 strains in each one, representing a total of 86 bacterial species and 40 resistance mechanisms. To evaluate the performance of the NRLs, five indicators were analyzed: bacterial identification, interpretation of susceptibility testing, acceptable ranges for zones of inhibition, inferred resistance mechanism, and delay time for the response. RESULTS: The average concordance was 82.6% (range: 74-95%) for bacterial identification, 93.3% (85-98%) for the interpretation of susceptibility testing, 84.6% (70-94%) for the zones of inhibition, and 82.5% (73-96%) for the inferred resistance mechanisms. The average delay time for the response was 34 days. Improvements in the detection of mechanisms of clinical importance, such as resistance to methicillin, macrolides and glycopeptides in Gram-positive cocci, and extended-spectrum, AmpC plasmid and carbapenemase beta-lactamases in Gram-negative bacilli, were observed. CONCLUSIONS: The LA-EQAS is an excellent tool for continuous quality improvement in the diagnosis of infections due to multiresistant microorganisms in NRLs in Latin America.

OBJETIVO: O objetivo deste trabalho é apresentar os resultados do Programa Latino-Americano de Garantia da Qualidade em Bacteriologia e Resistência Antimicrobiana (LA-EQAS, na sigla em inglês) entre 2000 e 2018 e a evolução na detecção de mecanismos de resistência com impacto clínico. MÉTODOS: Os Laboratórios Nacionais de Referência (LNRs) participantes receberam 25 inquéritos com 10 cepas bacterianas cada, representando um total de 86 espécies bacterianas e 40 mecanismos de resistência. Para avaliar o desempenho dos LNRs, foram analisados cinco indicadores: identificação bacteriana, interpretação dos testes de sensibilidade, faixas das zonas de inibição aceitáveis, mecanismo de resistência inferido e tempo de demora na resposta. RESULTADOS: A concordância média foi de 82,6% (intervalo: 74-95%) na identificação bacteriana, 93,3% (85-98%) na interpretação dos testes de sensibilidade, 84,6% (70-94%) nas zonas de inibição, 82,5% (73-96%) no mecanismo de resistência inferido e 34 dias na demora na resposta. Observou-se uma melhoria na detecção de mecanismos clinicamente relevantes, como a resistência a meticilina, macrolídeos e glicopeptídeos em cocos Gram-positivos, beta-lactamases de espectro ampliado, AmpC plasmídica e carbapenemases em bacilos Gram-negativos. CONCLUSÕES: O LA-EQAS é uma excelente ferramenta para a melhoria contínua da qualidade no diagnóstico de infecções por microrganismos multirresistentes nos LNRs da América Latina.

[Latin American consensus to define, categorize, and report multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant, or pandrug-resistant pathogensConsenso latino-americano para definição, categorização e notificação de patógenos multirresistentes, com resistência ampliada ou panresistentes]. / Consenso latinoamericano para definir, categorizar y notificar patógenos multirresistentes, con resistencia extendida o panresistentes.

This document presents a Latin American consensus to standardize definitions of different levels of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria of public health importance. Inclusion and exclusion criteria are described for antibiotics to include (availability, relevance, and existence of cut-off values) and for methodologies to use. Three gram-negative microorganisms with a great impact in the hospital environment (Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Acinetobacter spp.) were selected as a pilot proposal. The lack of cut-off values for certain antibiotics (e.g., tigecycline, fosfomycin, and colistin), crucial in treating infections caused by multi-drug resistant or extensively drug-resistant pathogens, led to the need to discuss and agree on provisional cut-off values for monitoring resistance to these drugs. The work team also addressed and reached consensus on easier-to-use alternative susceptibility tests, other than methods approved by international guidelines, for routine testing in clinical bacteriology laboratories. The main benefit of this document is to provide Latin American laboratories with a standardized and consensual framework for the identification and constant and unified surveillance of resistant microorganisms. The recommendations included in this document are the result of consensus among representatives of the national reference laboratories in the countries belonging to the Latin American Surveillance Network of Antimicrobial Resistance, coordinated by the Pan American Health Organization.

É apresentado um consenso latino-americano para padronizar a definição dos graus de resistência antimicrobiana em bactérias de importância em saúde pública. São descritos os critérios de inclusão e exclusão para os antibióticos a serem incluídos (disponibilidade, relevância e pontos de corte de sensibilidade) e metodologias a serem usadas. Como proposta-piloto, foram selecionados três microrganismos Gram-negativos de grande impacto no ambiente hospitalar (Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa e Acinetobacter spp.). Diante da falta de pontos de corte para alguns antibióticos (como tigeciclina, fosfomicina e colistina), essenciais para o tratamento de infecções causadas por patógenos com multirresistência ou resistência ampliada, foram debatidos e aprovados pela maioria pontos de corte provisórios para a vigilância da resistência a estes fármacos. Também foi discutido e aprovado o uso de testes de suscetibilidade alternativos aos métodos aprovados pelas diretrizes internacionais, mais simples de serem realizados como testes de rotina nos laboratórios de bacteriologia clínica. A principal contribuição deste documento é oferecer aos laboratórios latino-americanos um sistema padronizado e consensual para a identificação de microrganismos resistentes e a vigilância contínua e uniforme destes patógenos. As recomendações aqui contidas foram feitas por consenso por representantes dos laboratórios nacionais de referência dos países que integram a Rede Latino-Americana de Vigilância da Resistência Antimicrobiana, coordenada pela Organização Pan-Americana da Saúde (OPAS).

Characterizing Shigella species distribution and antimicrobial susceptibility to ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid in Latin America between 2000-2015.

BACKGROUND: Shigellosis is the second leading cause of diarrheal death globally. The global burden has been complicated by the emergence of Shigella strains resistant to first line antibiotic treatments such as ciprofloxacin. This study aims to describe the epidemiologic distribution of the most common Shigella species, and their antimicrobial susceptibility patterns to ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid (NA) in Latin America. METHODS: Laboratory data from 19 countries were obtained through the Latin American Network for Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance (ReLAVRA) from 2000-2015. The Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute reduced susceptibility breakpoints for Enterobacteriaceae was used to interpret the disc diffusion tests for Shigella susceptibility to ciprofloxacin and NA. Negative binominal regression was used to analyze longitudinal trends of Shigella isolates antimicrobial susceptibility. RESULTS: 79,548 Shigella isolates were tested and reported between 2000-2015. The most common isolated species were S. flexneri (49%), and S. sonnei (28%). There was a steady increase in the proportion of S. sonnei isolates within the region(p<0.001). The average annual percentage increase (AAPI) in nonsusceptibility was 18.4% (p<0.001) for ciprofloxacin (baseline = 0.3); and 13.2%(p<0.001) for NA (baseline = 3). AAPI nonsusceptibility to ciprofloxacin was 13.3% for S. flexneri (p<0.04); and 39.9% for S. sonnei (p<0.001). Honduras, Dominican Republic, Venezuela, and Chile reported the highest increase in nonsusceptibility to ciprofloxacin among all Shigella isolates. CONCLUSION: There is an increasing trend in Shigella nonsusceptibility to ciprofloxacin and NA, including among the most common shigella species, in Latin America. This rise of nonsusceptibility among Shigella species to commonly used treatments such as ciprofloxacin is alarming and threatens the control and management of this currently treatable infection. Improved data quality, collection and reporting is needed in Latin America to respond effectively to the rising trends observed. This includes the need for quality isolate level epidemiological data; molecular data, and data on antibiotic consumption and use.

World Health Organization Global Gonococcal Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (WHO GASP): review of new data and evidence to inform international collaborative actions and research efforts.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in Neisseria gonorrhoeae is a serious public health problem, compromising the management and control of gonorrhoea globally. Resistance in N. gonorrhoeae to ceftriaxone, the last option for first-line empirical monotherapy of gonorrhoea, has been reported from many countries globally, and sporadic failures to cure especially pharyngeal gonorrhoea with ceftriaxone monotherapy and dual antimicrobial therapies (ceftriaxone plus azithromycin or doxycycline) have been confirmed in several countries. In 2018, the first gonococcal isolates with ceftriaxone resistance plus high-level azithromycin resistance were identified in England and Australia. The World Health Organization (WHO) Global Gonococcal Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (GASP) is essential to monitor AMR trends, identify emerging AMR and provide evidence for refinements of treatment guidelines and public health policy globally. Herein we describe the WHO GASP data from 67 countries in 2015-16, confirmed gonorrhoea treatment failures with ceftriaxone with or without azithromycin or doxycycline, and international collaborative actions and research efforts essential for the effective management and control of gonorrhoea. In most countries, resistance to ciprofloxacin is exceedingly high, azithromycin resistance is present and decreased susceptibility or resistance to ceftriaxone has emerged. Enhanced global collaborative actions are crucial for the control of gonorrhoea, including improved prevention, early diagnosis, treatment of index patient and partner (including test-of-cure), improved and expanded AMR surveillance (including surveillance of antimicrobial use and treatment failures), increased knowledge of correct antimicrobial use and the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of antimicrobials and effective drug regulations and prescription policies (including antimicrobial stewardship). Ultimately, rapid, accurate and affordable point-of-care diagnostic tests (ideally also predicting AMR and/or susceptibility), new therapeutic antimicrobials and, the only sustainable solution, gonococcal vaccine(s) are imperative.

["One health" approach in the actions to address antimicrobial resistance from a latin american standpoint]. / Enfoque de una salud en las acciones para enfrentar la resistencia a los antimicrobianos desde una óptica latinoamericana.

Antimicrobial resistance is a complex epidemiology problem worldwide which calls for a wide and integrated approach such as "One Health." Resistant organisms are present in humans, animals, food, and the environment, and the main impeller of this resistance is the use of antimicrobial agents. The occurrence and propagation of antimicrobial resistance continue incessantly in the world, leaving devastating economic and health consequences behind. In 2015, the WHO, in collaboration with key partners such as the FAO and the OIE, developed the World Action Plan in Antimicrobial Resistance, under the perspective of "One Health." This Plan was endorsed by several countries and seeks collaboration for the prevention and control of antimicrobial resistance. This article aims at explaining the scope of the "One Health" approach within the context of antimicrobial resistance, the reason behind its adoption and what is expected from it. One of the main conclusions is the significant lack of knowledge on the selection and propagation of resistant organisms in the environment, with an emphasis on the threats and risks that this represents to human and animal health. Efforts need to be strengthened in order to better define the risks, design interventions, and measure its impact on antimicrobial resistance.

La resistencia a los antimicrobianos es un problema global de epidemiología compleja, adecuado para un enfoque amplio e integrado de «Una Salud¼. Existen organismos resistentes en humanos, animales, alimentos y el medio ambiente, y el principal impulsor de esta resistencia es el uso de antimicrobianos. La aparición y propagación de la resistencia a los antimicrobianos continúa sin cesar en todo el mundo, dejando devastadores resultados de salud y económicos a su paso. En el 2015, la OMS, en colaboración con socios clave como la FAO y la OIE, desarrolló el Plan de Acción Mundial en Resistencia a los Antimicrobianos, bajo la perspectiva de «Una Salud¼. Este Plan fue endosado por los países y busca la colaboración para la prevención y control de la resistencia a los antimicrobianos. En este artículo, se pretende explicar el alcance del enfoque «Una Salud¼ en el contexto de la resistencia a los antimicrobianos, por qué se ha adoptado y qué se espera lograr con ello. Una de las conclusiones principales es la gran falta de conocimiento sobre la selección y propagación de organismos resistentes en el medio ambiente, con énfasis en las amenazas y riesgos que esto representa para la salud humana y animal. Se han de intensificar los esfuerzos para mejor definir los riesgos, diseñar las intervenciones y medir su impacto en la resistencia a los antimicrobianos.