Application of airborne gamma spectrometric survey data to estimating terrestrial gamma-ray dose rates: an example in California.

We examined the applicability of radioelement data from the National Aerial Radiometric Reconnaissance, an element of the National Uranium Resource Evaluation, to estimate terrestrial gamma-ray absorbed dose rates, by comparing dose rates calculated from aeroradiometric surveys of uranium, thorium, and potassium concentrations with dose rates calculated from a radiogeologic data base and the distribution of lithologies in California. Gamma-ray dose rates increase generally from north to south following lithological trends, with low values of 25-30 nGy h-1 in the northernmost 1 x 2 degrees quadrangles between 41 and 42 degrees N to high values of 75-100 nGy h-1 in southeastern California. Lithologic-based estimates of mean dose rates in the quadrangles generally match those from aeroradiometric data, with statewide means of 63 and 60 nGy h-1, respectively. These are intermediate between a population-weighted global average of 51 nGy h-1 reported in 1982 by UNSCEAR and a weighted continental average of 70 nGy h-1, based on the global distribution of rock types. The concurrence of lithologically and aeroradiometrically determined dose rates in California, with its varied geology and topography encompassing settings representative of the continents, indicates that the National Aerial Radiometric Reconnaissance data are applicable to estimates of terrestrial absorbed dose rates from natural gamma emitters.

Modeling radon entry into Florida slab-on-grade houses.

Radon entry into a Florida house whose concrete slab is supported by a permeable concrete-block stem wall and a concrete footer is modeled. The slab rests on backfill material; the same material is used to fill the footer trench. A region of undisturbed soil is assumed to extend 10 m beyond and below the footer. The soil is assumed homogeneous and isotropic except for certain simulations in which soil layers of high permeability or radium content are introduced. Depressurization of the house induces a pressure field in the soil and backfill. The Laplace equation, resulting from Darcy's law and the continuity equation, is solved using a steady-state finite-difference model to determine this field. The mass-transport equation is then solved to obtain the diffusive and advective radon entry rates through the slab; the permeable stem wall; gaps at the intersections of the slab, stem wall, and footer; and gaps in the slab. These rates are determined for variable soil, backfill, and stem-wall permeability and radium content, slab-opening width and position, slab and stem-wall diffusivity, and water table depth. The variations in soil permeability and radium content include cases of horizontally stratified soil. We also consider the effect of a gap between the edge of the slab and the stem wall that restricts the passage of soil gas from the stem wall into the house. Calculations indicate that the total radon entry rate is relatively low unless the soil or backfill permeability or radium content is high. Variations in most of the factors, other than the soil permeability and radium content, have only a small effect on the total radon entry rate. However, for a fixed soil permeability, the total radon entry rate may be reduced by a factor of 2 or more by decreasing the backfill permeability, by making the stem wall impermeable and gap-free, (possibly by constructing a one-piece slab/stem-wall/footer), or by increasing the pressure in the interior of the stem wall (by ensuring that there is a large pressure drop across the slab/stem-wall gap), thereby reducing radon entry into the wall from the soil. Use of an impermeable stem wall and a low-permeability fill in combination is predicted to reduce the radon entry rate by 71%.

Distribution of airborne radon-222 concentrations in U.S. homes.

Apparently large exposures of the general public to the radioactive decay products of radon-222 present in indoor air have led to systematical appraisal of monitoring data from U.S. single-family homes; several ways of aggregating data were used that take into account differences in sample selection and season of measurements. The resulting distribution of annual-average radon-222 concentrations can be characterized by an arithmetic mean of 1.5 picocurie per liter (55 becquerels per cubic meter) and a long tail with 1 to 3% of homes exceeding 8 picocuries per liter, or by a geometric mean of 0.9 picocurie per liter and a geometric standard deviation of about 2.8. The standard deviation in the means is 15%, estimated from the number and variability of the available data sets, but the total uncertainty is larger because these data may not be representative. Available dose-response data suggest that an average of 1.5 picocuries per liter contributes about 0.3% lifetime risk of lung cancer and that, in the million homes with the highest concentrations, where annual exposures approximate or exceed those received by underground uranium miners, long-term occupants suffer an added lifetime risk of at least 2%, reaching extraordinary values at the highest concentrations observed.

Characterizing the sources, range, and environmental influences of radon 222 and its decay products.

Recent results from our group directly assist efforts to identify and control excessive concentrations of radon 222 and its decay products in residential environments. We have demonstrated directly the importance of pressure-induced flow of soil gas for transport of radon from the ground into houses. Analysis of available information from measurements of concentrations in U.S. homes has resulted in a quantitative appreciation of the distribution of indoor levels, including the degree of dependence on geographic location. Experiments on the effectiveness of air cleaning devices for removal of particles and radon decay products indicate the potential and limitations of this approach to control.

A rapid spectroscopic technique for determining the potential alpha-energy concentration of radon decay products.

We consider the application of alpha-spectroscopy to the rapid determination of the potential alpha-energy concentration (PAEC) of radon decay products indoors. Two count totals are obtained after a single counting period. The PAEC is then estimated by a linear combination of the count totals, the two coefficients being determined by analysis of the dependence of the statistical and procedural errors on the equilibrium conditions and the sampling, delay and counting times. For a total measurement time of 11 min, the procedural error is unlikely to exceed 20% for equilibrium conditions commonly found indoors; the statistical error is less than 20% at a PAEC of 0.005 WL, assuming a product of detector efficiency and flow rate of at least 1.0 l./min. An analysis is made of techniques based on a total alpha count, and the results are compared with those obtained with the rapid spectroscopic technique; the latter is clearly preferable when the measurement time does not exceed 15 min.