Pharmacokinetics of mycophenolic acid and its effect on CD4+ and CD8+ T cells after oral administration of mycophenolate mofetil to healthy cats.

BACKGROUND: Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) is an immunosuppressant used in human and veterinary medicine. Little pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic information on MMF is available in cats. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the plasma disposition of mycophenolic acid (MPA) and assess its effect on total peripheral blood mononuclear cells and CD4+ /CD8+ ratios after PO administration of MMF. ANIMALS: Healthy cats (n = 10). METHODS: Mycophenolate mofetil was administered at a dosage of 10 mg/kg q12h (n = 3), 15 mg/kg q12h (n = 3), and 15 mg/kg q8h (n = 4) for 7 days. Concentrations of MPA and derivatives were determined using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography. Flow cytometry was used to assess CD4+ /CD8+ T-cell ratios. RESULTS: All cats biotransformed MMF into MPA. Half of the cats (5/10) had adverse effects within 1 week of MMF administration. Area under the curve limit of quantification (AUC0-LOQh ) of MPA ranged from 1.27 to 2.03 hours·µg/mL and from 1.77 to 8.54 hours·µg/mL after the first and last PO dose of 10 mg/kg. The AUC0-loqh of MPA ranged from 2.18 to 31 hours·µg/mL after the first dose of 15 mg/kg of MMF. Before the first dose of MMF, the average total number of PBMC ranged from 1.2 to 9.3 million/mL. At the last dose of MMF, the average total number of PBMC ranged from 3 to 5 million/mL. CONCLUSION: Mycophenolic acid was detected in all cats. The dose 10 mg/kg given q12h for 1 week was tolerated (n = 3). The efficacy of MMF as an immunosuppressant and long-term safety in cats of this dosage regimen is unknown.

A novel carotenoid, 4-keto-α-carotene, as an unexpected by-product during genetic engineering of carotenogenesis in rice callus.

Rice endosperm is devoid of carotenoids because the initial biosynthetic steps are absent. The early carotenogenesis reactions were constituted through co-transformation of endosperm-derived rice callus with phytoene synthase and phytoene desaturase transgenes. Subsequent steps in the pathway such as cyclization and hydroxylation reactions were catalyzed by endogenous rice enzymes in the endosperm. The carotenoid pathway was extended further by including a bacterial ketolase gene able to form astaxanthin, a high value carotenoid which is not a typical plant carotenoid. In addition to astaxanthin and precursors, a carotenoid accumulated in the transgenic callus which did not fit into the pathway to astaxanthin. This was subsequently identified as 4-keto-α-carotene by HPLC co-chromatography, chemical modification, mass spectrometry and the reconstruction of its biosynthesis pathway in Escherichia coli. We postulate that this keto carotenoid is formed from α-carotene which accumulates by combined reactions of the heterologous gene products and endogenous rice endosperm cyclization reactions.

An in vitro system for the rapid functional characterization of genes involved in carotenoid biosynthesis and accumulation.

We have developed an assay based on rice embryogenic callus for rapid functional characterization of metabolic genes. We validated the assay using a selection of well-characterized genes with known functions in the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway, allowing rapid visual screening of callus phenotypes based on tissue color. We then used the system to identify the functions of two uncharacterized genes: a chemically synthesized ß-carotene ketolase gene optimized for maize codon usage, and a wild-type Arabidopsis thaliana ortholog of the cauliflower Orange gene. In contrast to previous reports (Lopez, A.B., Van Eck, J., Conlin, B.J., Paolillo, D.J., O'Neill, J. and Li, L. () J. Exp. Bot. 59, 213-223; Lu, S., Van Eck, J., Zhou, X., Lopez, A.B., O'Halloran, D.M., Cosman, K.M., Conlin, B.J., Paolillo, D.J., Garvin, D.F., Vrebalov, J., Kochian, L.V., Küpper, H., Earle, E.D., Cao, J. and Li, L. () Plant Cell 18, 3594-3605), we found that the wild-type Orange allele was sufficient to induce chromoplast differentiation. We also found that chromoplast differentiation was induced by increasing the availability of precursors and thus driving flux through the pathway, even in the absence of Orange. Remarkably, we found that diverse endosperm-specific promoters were highly active in rice callus despite their restricted activity in mature plants. Our callus system provides a unique opportunity to predict the effect of metabolic engineering in complex pathways, and provides a starting point for quantitative modeling and the rational design of engineering strategies using synthetic biology. We discuss the impact of our data on analysis and engineering of the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway.

Identification of carotenoids using mass spectrometry.

The present review compiles positive MS fragmentation data of selected carotenoids obtained using various ionization techniques and matrices. In addition, new experimental data from the analysis of carotenoids in transgenic maize and rice callus are provided. Several carotenes and oxygen-functionalized carotenoids containing epoxy, hydroxyl, and ketone groups were ionized by atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI)-tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) in positive ion mode. Thus, on the basis of the information obtained from the literature and our own experiments, we identified characteristic carotenoid ions that can be associated to functional groups in the structures of these compounds. In addition, pigments with a very similar structure were differentiated through comparison of the intensities of their fragments. The data provide a basis for the structural elucidation of carotenoids by mass spectrometry (MS).

Combinatorial genetic transformation of cereals and the creation of metabolic libraries for the carotenoid pathway.

Combinatorial nuclear transformation is used to generate populations of transgenic plants containing random selections from a collection of input transgenes. This is a useful approach because it provides the means to test different combinations of genes without the need for separate transformation experiments, allowing the comprehensive analysis of metabolic pathways and other genetic systems requiring the coordinated expression of multiple genes. The principle of combinatorial nuclear transformation is demonstrated in this chapter through protocols developed in our laboratory that allow combinations of genes encoding enzymes in the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway to be introduced into rice and a white-endosperm variety of corn. These allow the accumulation of carotenoids to be screened initially by the colour of the endosperm, which ranges from white through various shades of yellow and orange depending on the types and quantities of carotenoids present. The protocols cover the preparation of DNA-coated metal particles, the transformation of corn and rice plants by particle bombardment, the regeneration of transgenic plants, the extraction of carotenoids from plant tissues, and their analysis by high-performance liquid chromatography.

The potential impact of plant biotechnology on the Millennium Development Goals.

The eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are international development targets for the year 2015 that aim to achieve relative improvements in the standards of health, socioeconomic status and education in the world's poorest countries. Many of the challenges addressed by the MDGs reflect the direct or indirect consequences of subsistence agriculture in the developing world, and hence, plant biotechnology has an important role to play in helping to achieve MDG targets. In this opinion article, we discuss each of the MDGs in turn, provide examples to show how plant biotechnology may be able to accelerate progress towards the stated MDG objectives, and offer our opinion on the likelihood of such technology being implemented. In combination with other strategies, plant biotechnology can make a contribution towards sustainable development in the future although the extent to which progress can be made in today's political climate depends on how we deal with current barriers to adoption.