Orally self-disintegrating milk protein puffs enriched with food by-products for the elderly.

Supercritical fluid extrusion (SCFX) processing was used to develop milk protein-based orally self-disintegrating puffs enriched with fruit and dairy by-products, designed specifically to cater to the needs of elderly population having swallowing issues and lactose intolerance. Lactose hydrolyzed skim milk powder (LHSMP) was also added in the formulation to mitigate lactose intolerance while LHSMP was also exploited as a precursor for the polymerization of galactose and lactose to generate galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) in the puffs. This study for the first time took advantage of the unique features of SCFX processing for in-process GOS formation and enrichment of puffs, achieving GOS contents up to 0.48 g/30 g serving of puffs, thereby making them nutritionally superior and functionally attractive snacks. The estimated nutritional profile revealed that SCFX puffs contained higher levels of protein (16.3 g/30 g), fiber (1.6 g/30 g), phenolics and other valuable nutrients compared to the starch-rich, disintegrating Market Baby puffs.

High internal phase oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by supercritical carbon dioxide extruded whey protein concentrate.

High Internal Phase Emulsions (HIPEs) were stabilized by functionalized whey protein concentrate (WPC-80). Functionalization of WPC-80 was done by supercritical CO2 assisted extrusion technology. HIPEs were formed by 80% oil and 1-4 wt% of control (untreated) whey protein concentrate, extruded/functionalized whey protein concentrates (f-WPC-80) at pH 3.0 and 5.4, and sodium caseinate (NaCas) separately and were characterized for their stability at two temperatures (25 and 40 °C) for 20 days. Results indicated that f-WPC-80-pH3.0 formed self-standing gels at 1 wt% concentrations which were more stable, without phase separation, than those stabilized by commercially used stabilizer NaCas and native c-WPC. At 4% concentration of f-WPC-80-pH3.0, the compressed droplets produced emulsions with self-standing and viscoelastic features. While control WPC-80, could not form stable HIPEs at any investigated concentrations. The reported high internal phase oil-in-water emulsions, offer a potential new system for delivery of nutritionally superior and clean-label products of commercial utility.

Venturi-based rapid expansion of supercritical solution (Vent-RESS): synthesis of liposomes for pH-triggered delivery of hydrophilic and lipophilic bioactives.

Multivitamin-loaded and surface-modified liposomes tailored for simultaneous intestinal delivery of both lipophilic and hydrophilic bioactives were synthesized from sunflower phosphatidylcholine (SFPC). Liposomes (SL) were generated with the aid of a novel, organic solvent free, and environmentally benign process which utilizes venturi-based rapid expansion of supercritical solution (Vent-RESS). Vitamins E and C were used as model lipophilic and hydrophilic bioactives and demonstrated an average encapsulation efficiency of 92 and 70 %, respectively. Synthesized liposomes were coated with a pH-responsive double-wall of chitosan and ß-lactoglobulin (ßlg-Cs-SL) to develop a biocompatible vehicle for pH-triggered delivery of bioactive cargo(s). To compare the efficacy of this newly developed dual-coating, SL was also coated with a commercially available pH responsive polymer, Eudragit® S100 (Eu-SL). No organic solvent was used during the surface coating of SLs with these two different types of enteric coatings. The performance of these two coatings was studied by conducting morphological characterization through diameter and ζ-potential measurements along with confocal laser scanning and freeze-fracture cryogenic scanning electron microscopies. The stability of coated and uncoated SFPC liposomes was determined in simulated gastrointestinal fluids. For ßlg-Cs-SL and Eu-SL, after 2 h of incubation in simulated gastric condition, less than 5 % of the encapsulated vitamins C and E were released, whereas for SL, 41 and 28 % of vitamins C and E were released within 2 h of incubation period. In simulated intestinal fluid, coated liposomes released most of their remaining payload when incubated for 4 h. The newly developed dual coating was found to be as effective as its commercially available counterpart, Eudragit® S100 coating; nevertheless, the biocompatible, non-toxic, and non-synthetic nature of this coating makes it an attractive alternative. Modeling the release kinetics of vitamins from coated liposome showed that the release of payload from surface coated liposomes proceeded through a multistep structural disintegration involving both Fickian and non-Fickian types of diffusion. The ability of these surface-coated liposomes to maintain structural integrity under the gastric condition followed by site-specific, pH-triggered release of encapsulated cargo in the intestine will make them highly suitable for oral administration of bioactive compounds in pharmaceutical and food applications.

Liposomes for oral delivery of protein and peptide-based therapeutics: challenges, formulation strategies, and advances.

Throughout the past decade, there has been a rapid growth in the development of protein/peptide-based therapeutics. These therapeutics have found widespread applications in the treatment of cancer, infectious diseases, and other metabolic disorders owing to their several desirable attributes, such as reduced toxicity, diverse biological activities, high specificity, and potency. Most protein/peptide-based drugs are still administered parenterally, and there is an unprecedented demand in the pharmaceutical industry to develop oral delivery routes to increase patient acceptability and convenience. Recent advancements in nanomedicine discoveries have led to the development of several nano and micro-particle-based oral delivery platforms for protein/peptide-based therapeutics and among these, liposomes have emerged as a prominent candidate. Liposomes are spherical vesicles composed of one or more phospholipid bilayers enclosing a core aqueous phase. Their unique amphiphilic nature enables encapsulation of a diverse range of bioactives/drugs including both hydrophobic and hydrophilic compounds for delivery. Against this backdrop, this review provides an overview of the current approaches and challenges associated with the routes and methods of oral administration of protein/peptide-based therapeutics by using liposomes as a potential vehicle. First, the conventional and innovative liposome formation approaches have been discussed along with their applications. Next, the challenges associated with current approaches for oral delivery of protein and peptide-derived therapeutics have been thoroughly addressed. Lastly, we have critically reviewed the potential of liposomes utilization as vehicles for oral delivery of proteins emphasizing the current status and future directions in this area.

Heat stability of emulsions using functionalized milk protein concentrate generated by supercritical fluid extrusion.

In this study, thermostable oil-in-water emulsions containing high protein contents were developed using milk protein concentrate (MPC) that was functionalized by supercritical fluid extrusion (SCFX) processing at low temperature and shear. Functionalized MPC (f-MPC) emulsions (3% protein-80% oil and 10% protein-50% oil) were compared with emulsions stabilized by commercial MPC (c-MPC), sodium caseinate (NaCas), and a commercial mayonnaise for their emulsifying properties and heat stability at 70 and 90 °C for 30 min, and 121 °C for 15 min. Zeta-potentials and interfacial protein concentrations of f-MPC emulsions were higher than that of c-MPC emulsions. f-MPC emulsions remained stable against creaming for at least 8 weeks at room temperature (23 °C), while their c-MPC counterparts showed significant creaming at the same conditions. Even after heating at 121 °C for 15 min, f-MPC emulsions retained their structural integrity as observed from their confocal images, droplet size distributions, and viscosities. In contrast, c-MPC emulsions and mayonnaise disintegrated upon heating at 121 °C for 15 min, and oil droplets of mayonnaise partially coalesced during heating at 90 °C for 30 min. f-MPC emulsions revealed higher viscosities compared to c-MPC emulsions, providing them improved stability. Viscosities of f-MPC emulsions were not significantly affected by heating at 90 °C for 30 min, while other emulsions exhibited a substantial increase in their viscosities due to protein denaturation and aggregation. Thus, f-MPC emulsions can be utilized in the development of protein-enriched functional foods (e.g., spreads) that are stable against high heat treatments.

Production of high-purity phospholipid concentrate from buttermilk powder using ethanol-modified supercritical carbon dioxide.

A new strategy to concentrate phospholipids from buttermilk powder was developed using a food-grade green method based on ethanol-modified supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) extraction. The effects of extraction conditions, namely temperature (50 and 60°C), pressure (30 and 40 MPa), and ethanol concentration (10, 15, and 20%, wt/wt), on the total lipid yield and phospholipid content were investigated. The ethanol concentration had a more significant effect on the total lipid yield and phospholipid content than the temperature and pressure within the ranges studied. The highest phospholipid recovery was achieved at 60°C, 30 MPa, and 15% (wt/wt) ethanol with a total lipid yield of 6.3% (wt/wt), of which 49% (wt/wt) were phospholipids composed of dihydrosphingomyelin (5%), sphingomyelin (24%), phosphatidylethanolamine (22%), phosphatidylserine (2%), phosphatidylinositol (3%), and phosphatidylcholine (44%). The triacylglycerol compositions of extracts obtained by Folch and ethanol-modified SC-CO2 extractions were similar. A sequential pure SC-CO2 and ethanol-modified SC-CO2 extraction was carried out to separate nonpolar lipids in the first fraction, thereby concentrating phospholipids in the second fraction. This sequential extraction produced a highly concentrated phospholipid extract (76%, wt/wt). To the best of our knowledge, this is the highest phospholipid concentration reported from buttermilk powder. Thus, this phospholipid-rich extract can be used in the development of functional foods as a food-grade emulsifier with potential health-promoting effects.

Changes in conformation and quality of vegetable protein during texturization process by extrusion.

Texturized Vegetable Protein (TVP), as meat analogs, has garnered attention due to the nutritional advantages it offers over conventional animal proteins. During the extrusion process of TVP, under the comprehensive effects of temperature, shear force, and pressure, complex conformational changes and molecular interactions amongst protein, carbohydrate, lipid, and other components occur, all of which influence the quality of TVP. Control of the extrusion process is still one of the largest challenges in its evolution. Therefore, this review aims to summarize the development and current status of food extrusion technology for TVP production and give detailed descriptions about the conformational changes of the main components during the extrusion process, focusing on the effects of barrel temperature, moisture content, feed rate and screw speed on TVP quality. Lastly, we discuss approaches to characterize the extrusion process and propose a new system analysis model.

Modulation of whey protein-kappa carrageenan hydrogel properties via enzymatic protein modification.

Treatment of whey protein isolate (WPI; 1 to 25% w/w) in heated κ-carrageenan (KC; 2% w/w) slurries with protease and/or transglutaminase modulated the properties of the hydrogels formed after cooling. Observation of peak compression stress and strain at gel rupture showed WPI incorporation at 1, 5 and 10% (w/w) significantly reduced the strength and deformability of 2% (w/w) KC gels. Treatment of WPI solutions in KC slurries with Alcalase 2.4L was shown by both SDS-Page and size exclusion HPLC to reduce protein/peptide molecular weight distributions below 10 kDa, with large portions below 1 kDa. This peptide size reduction within the KC matrix produced more translucent gels with a more organized wall and cell structure as observed by SEM, which resulted in gels with observed rupture stress/strain levels similar to 2% KC alone. Transglutaminase treatment of WPI-KC slurries showed the reverse behavior, reducing gel translucency, strength and deformability. At these loadings, WPI-KC gel strength/deformability appears to relate decreasing peptide size to gel behavior trending towards KC-only gels; suggesting peptide size modulation in protein-carbohydrate complexes will allow significant tailoring of texture for the delivery of protein/peptide rich gelled products.

Simultaneous microencapsulation of hydrophilic and lipophilic bioactives in liposomes produced by an ecofriendly supercritical fluid process.

Organic solvent residues are always a concern with the liposomes produced by traditional techniques. Our objectives were to encapsulate hydrophilic and lipophilic compounds in liposomes using a newly designed supercritical fluid process coupled with vacuum-driven cargo loading. Supercritical carbon dioxide was chosen as the phospholipid-dissolving medium and an ecofriendly substitute for organic solvents. Liposomal microencapsulation was conducted via a 1000-µm expansion nozzle at 12.41MPa, 90°C, and aqueous cargo loading rate of 0.25ml/s. Vitamins C and E were selected as model hydrophilic and lipophilic compounds encapsulated in the integrated liposomes. The average vesicle size was 951.02nm with a zeta potential of -51.87mV. The encapsulation efficiency attained was 32.97% for vitamin C and 99.32% for vitamin E. Good emulsion stability was maintained during storage at 4°C for 20days. Simultaneous microencapsulation in the liposomes was successfully achieved with this supercritical fluid process.

Microencapsulation and characterization of liposomal vesicles using a supercritical fluid process coupled with vacuum-driven cargo loading.

A new technique of liposomal microencapsulation, consisting of supercritical fluid extraction followed by rapid expansion of the supercritical solution and vacuum-driven cargo loading, was successfully developed. It is a continuous flow-through process without usage of any toxic organic solvent. For use as a coating material, the solubility of soy phospholipids in supercritical carbon dioxide was first determined using a dynamic equilibrium system and the data was correlated with the Chrastil model with good agreement. Liposomes were made with D-(+)-glucose as a cargo and their properties were characterized as functions of expansion pressure, temperature, and cargo loading rates. The highest encapsulation efficiency attained was 31.7% at the middle expansion pressure of 12.41MPa, highest expansion temperature of 90°C, and lowest cargo loading rate of 0.25mL/s. The large unilamellar vesicles and multivesicular vesicles were observed to be a majority of the liposomes produced using this eco-friendly process.

Enzyme-assisted supercritical fluid extraction: an alternative and green technology for non-extractable polyphenols.

This contribution proposes an enzyme-assisted eco-friendly process for the extraction of non-extractable polyphenols (NEPPs) from black tea leftover (BTLO), an underutilized tea waste. BTLO hydrolyzed with various enzyme formulations was extracted using supercritical carbon dioxide and ethanol as co-solvent (SC-CO2 + EtOH). A conventional solvent extraction (CSE) was performed using EtOH + H2O (80:20, v/v) for comparison purposes. The results revealed that hydrolysis of BTLO with 2.9% (w/w) kemzyme at 45 °C and pH 5.4 for 98 min improved the liberation of NEPPs offering 5-fold higher extract yield (g/100 g) as compared with non-treated BTLO. In vitro antioxidant evaluation and LC-MS characterization of extracts revealed the presence of phenolic acids (mainly caffeic and para-coumaric acid) of high antioxidant value. Scanning electron micrograph of the hydrolyzed BTLO samples indicated noteworthy changes in the ultrastructure of BTLO. Moreover, polyphenol extracts obtained by SC-CO2 + EtOH extraction were found to be cleaner and richer in polyphenols as compared to CSE. The devised enzyme-assisted SC-CO2 + EtOH extraction process in the present work can be explored as an effective biotechnological mean for the optimal recovery of antioxidant polyphenols. Graphical abstract Enzymatic pretreatment can effectively liberate non-extractable polyphenols (NEPPs) while hydrolyzing the cellulosic and hemicellulosic framework of black tea left overs (BTLO).

Stability of niosomes with encapsulated vitamin D3 and ferrous sulfate generated using a novel supercritical carbon dioxide method.

Niosomes were prepared using a novel supercritical carbon dioxide based method to simultaneously encapsulate ferrous sulfate and vitamin D3 as hydrophilic and hydrophobic cargo, respectively. Vesicle particle size was determined to be bimodal with peak diameters of 1.44 ± 0.16 µm and 7.21 ± 0.64 µm, with the smaller peak comprising 98.8% of the total niosomal volume. Encapsulation efficiency of ferrous sulfate was 25.1 ± 0.2% and encapsulation efficiency of vitamin D3 was 95.9 ± 1.47%. Physical stability of the produced niosomes was assessed throughout a storage period of 21 days. Niosomes showed good physical stability at 20 °C, but storage at 4 °C showed an initial burst release, indicating possible rupture of the niosomal membrane. The Korsmeyer-Peppas equation was used to model the release of ferrous sulfate over time at both storage temperatures.

Novel method of niosome generation using supercritical carbon dioxide part I: process mechanics.

A novel method for the production of non-ionic surfactant vesicles (niosomes) using an rapid expansion of supercritical solution (RESS)-based process coupled with a gas ejector is presented along with an investigation of parameters affecting niosome morphology, size and encapsulation efficiency of a 0.2 M D-glucose solution in Tris buffer at physiological pH. The solubility of the non-ionic surfactant polyoxyethylene(4) sorbitan monostearate in SC-CO2 was determined at three pressures (10, 15 and 20 MPa) and three temperatures (40, 50 and 60 °C). Mole fraction of Tween61 in the vapor phase increased with pressure at 40 °C, but did not change with pressure at 50 or 60 °C. Solubility data were correlated using the Peng-Robinson equation of state (PREOS) with the Panagiotopoulos and Reid mixing rule. Vesicles were either multilamellar or unilamellar, depending on the degree of precipitation of the lipid formulation at the point of aqueous cargo introduction. Vesicle particle size distributions were bimodal, with the 80-99% of the liposomal volume contributed niosomes ranging in size from 3 to 7 µm and the remaining niosomes ranging from 239 to 969 nm, depending on the system configuration. Encapsulation efficiency as high as 28% using the gas ejector to introduce the glucose cargo solution was achieved. Vesicle particle size and encapsulation efficiency were shown to be dependent on cargo droplet formation.

Current intervention strategies for the microbial safety of sprouts.

Sprouts have gained popularity worldwide due to their nutritional values and health benefits. The fact that their consumption has been associated with numerous outbreaks of foodborne illness threatens the $250 million market that this industry has established in the United States. Therefore, sprout manufacturers have utilized the U.S. Food and Drug Administration recommended application of 20,000 ppm of calcium hypochlorite solution to seeds before germination as a preventative method. Concentrations of up to 200 ppm of chlorine wash are also commonly used on sprouts. However, chlorine-based treatment achieves on average only 1- to 3-log reductions in bacteria and is associated with negative health and environmental issues. The search for alternative strategies has been widespread, involving chemical, biological, physical, and hurdle processes that can achieve up to 7-log reductions in bacteria in some cases. The compilation here of the current scientific data related to these techniques is used to compare their efficacy for ensuring the microbial safety of sprouts and their practicality for commercial producers. Of specific importance for alternative seed and sprout treatments is maintaining the industry-accepted germination rate of 95% and the sensorial attributes of the final product. This review provides an evaluation of suggested decontamination technologies for seeds and sprouts before, during, and after germination and concludes that thermal inactivation of seeds and irradiation of sprouts are the most practical stand-alone microbial safety interventions for sprout production.

Micronutrient and protein-fortified whole grain puffed rice made by supercritical fluid extrusion.

Supercritical fluid extrusion (SCFX) was used to produce shelf-stable puffed rice fortified with protein, dietary fiber, and micronutrients. Product ingredients and process parameters were evaluated for end-product nutritional and textural qualities. Supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO(2)) served as a viscosity-lowering plasticizer and blowing agent during the process, which has been shown to produce expanded products with good textural qualities at lower temperatures (~100 °C) than conventional steam-based extrusion (130-180 °C). The fortified puffed rice contained 8% dietary fiber, 21.5% protein, and iron, zinc, and vitamins A and C at their recommended daily values in 100 g of product. The SCFX process allowed for the complete retention of all added minerals, 55-58% retention of vitamin A, and 64-76% retention of vitamin C. All essential amino acids including lysine were retained at exceptionally high levels (98.6%), and no losses were observed due to Maillard reaction or oxidation. All of the essential amino acid contents were equal to the reference protein recommended by FAO/WHO. Soy protein fortification improved the total amount of protein in the final rice products and provided a complementary amino acid profile to that of rice; the lysine content improved from 35 to 60 mg/protein, making the end product an excellent source of complete protein. Thus, SC-CO(2)-assisted extrusion is an effective process-based approach to produce cereal grain-based, low-moisture (5-8%) expanded products fortified with protein and any cocktail of micronutrients, without compromising the end-product sensory or nutritional qualities. These products are ideally suited for consumption as breakfast cereals, snack foods, and as part of nutrition bars for school lunch programs. The balanced nutritional profile and use of staple crop byproducts such as broken rice makes these expanded crisps unique to the marketplace.

Recent patents on the sterilization of food and biomaterials by supercritical fluids.

Supercritical fluid technology applies the unique characteristics of certain substances under particular conditions of pressure and temperature above their critical point. In particular, supercritical fluid sterilization provides a nonthermal solution to problems related to bacterial, viral, yeast and enzyme inactivation in the food and pharmaceutical industries as well as healthcare services. Supercritical fluid CO2 is versatile for sterilization due to its non-reactive nature, ability to penetrate into cells and tissues, reduced energy usage and improved quality retention of heat-sensitive substrates. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to illustrate the most recent and related patents for sterilizing food and biomaterials with supercritical fluids, published and/or granted from 2005 to present. Finally, the manuscript reports a discussion on the current challenges and development of supercritical fluid sterilization particularly for the food industry.

Leavened dough processing by supercritical fluid extrusion (SCFX).

Yeast-leavened dough processing is semicontinuous due to the requirement for fermentation at constant temperature and humidity. Also, new regulations on the emission of alcohols are becoming burdensome on the baking industry. Extrusion processing of dough with supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO(2)) is envisioned to alleviate emission problems and to decrease production time by eliminating fermentation. A bread dough formulation with 50% (w/w) moisture was leavened by injecting 1.5% (w/w) SC-CO(2) in a twin-screw extruder at 37 degrees C. Specific mechanical energy input was 260 kJ/kg. The operating apparent shear rate range was 60-260 s(-1). SCFX-leavened dough density (420-430 kg/m(3)) was in good agreement with values reported for similar doughs. The flow behavior index, obtained by an on-line slit rheometer, was 0.49 for the nonleavened control and 0.63 for the SCFX-leavened dough. Apparent viscosity of the SCFX-leavened dough varied from 37 to 23 Pa-s. This new continuous process offers attractive possibilities for industrial applications if further developed.

Rheological characteristics of intermediate moisture blends of pregelatinized and raw wheat starch.

Rheological properties of intermediate moisture (35-45% wet basis) doughs from pregelatinized and raw wheat starch blends of various ratios were characterized using off-line capillary rheometry and online slit-die extrusion. In the case of capillary rheometer, viscosity of blends decreased by up to 50% as pregel starch concentration increased from 5 to 45%, whereas tests could not be conducted beyond 45% pregel starch concentration. For slit-die extrusion, viscosity was at a minimum at 60% pregel concentration, and it decreased by as much as 65% as pregel concentration increased from 0 to 60%. As pregel concentration increased (from 5 to 45% for the rheometer and from 0 to 60% for the extruder), the amount of water available in the system for gelatinization of existing raw starch granules decreased due to the stronger water-binding capacity of pregelatinized starch. This led to decreased additional conversion in the rheometer and extruder, which in turn caused a decrease in the volume fraction of starch and a reduction in viscosity.

A Review of the Sealworm Problem: Biology, Implications and Solutions.

The life cycle and geographic distribution of the sealworm ( Phocanema decipiens ) are reviewed. Also discussed is the temperature tolerance of the third stage larva as well as its public health implications. It is concluded that there ought to be no public health hazards associated with the sealworm as long as people continue to process seafood properly. Correlation between the increase in the grey seal population and the increase in the rate of sealworm infestation in cod over the last decades as well as possible biological solutions to the problem also are discussed. Rate of infection is similar to Eastern Canadian waters, British waters, of the coast of Norway, and around Iceland. Also reviewed are the current detection methods, their limitations, potential alternative technique as well as the properties of the sealworm involved. Pictures taken, with the Scanning Laser Acoustic Microscope, of sealworm embedded in 2.5- and 4-cm thick cod tissue, are presented.

A Review of Effects of Carbon Dioxide on Microbial Growth and Food Quality.

Carbon dioxide is effective for extending the shelf-life of perishable foods by retarding bacterial growth. The overall effect of carbon dioxide is to increase both the lag phase and the generation time of spoilage microorganisms; however, the specific mechanism for the bacteriostatic effect is not known. Displacement of oxygen and intracellular acidification were possible mechanisms that were proposed, then discounted, by early researchers. Rapid cellular penetration and alteration of cell permeability characteristics have also been reported, but their relation to the overall mechanism is not clear. Several researchers have proposed that carbon dioxide may first be solubilized into the liquid phase of the treated tissue to form carbonic acid (H2CO3), and investigations by the authors tend to confirm this step, as well as to indicate the possible direct use of carbonic acid for retarding bacterial spoilage. Most recently, a metabolic mechanism has been studied by a number of researchers whereby carbon dioxide in the cell has negative effects on various enzymatic and biochemical pathways. The combined effect of these metabolic interferences are thought to constitute a stress on the system, and result in a slowing of the growth rate. The degree to which carbon dioxide is effective generally increases with concentration, but high levels raise the possibility of establishing conditions where pathogenic organisms such as Clostridium botulinum may survive. It is thought that such risks can be minimized with proper sanitation and temperature control, and that the commercial development of food packaging systems employing carbon dioxide will increase in the coming years.