A preliminary global investigation into potential impacts on successful captive breeding for two species of Rhyticeros hornbill.

Asian hornbills have limited ex situ breeding success, yet these species are some of the most threatened of birds, in need of managed breeding programs. To optimize breeding and increase the sustainability of such populations, it is necessary to assess and improve their husbandry and welfare. Evidence to improve reproduction can be gathered through global husbandry surveys. A survey was sent out to all European Association of Zoos and Aquaria and Association of Zoos and Aquarium holders of the wreathed hornbill (Rhyticeros undulatus) and Papuan hornbill (R. plicatus) to determine predictors for ex situ breeding success. This research found that pairs that have spent more years together (p = .016) and that adding additional proteins to the diet (p = .006) are two significant predictors of breeding success for wreathed- and Papuan hornbill pairs. This paper found a general trend that successful hornbill pairs prefer nest boxes that are situated outside (p = .054). The behaviors of calling to each other and sitting in close proximity showed a general trend and were observed more frequently in successful pairs and, therefore, could be good indicators of bonded pairs. We recommend that ex situ institutions allow their hornbill pairs time to form strong bonds, and that pair compatibility is monitored regularly to ensure that such interactions are positive and not consistently negative. An increase in the percentage of dietary proteins, prior and during the breeding season appears to stimulate pairs to breed. If the management and husbandry alterations presented in this study are implemented, the sustainability of Rhyticeros hornbill populations may be enhanced.

Assessing the impact of environmental enrichment on behavior in understudied armadillo species: A case study.

The implementation of environmental enrichment (EE) can be effective in promoting zoo animal welfare by enhancing the performance of natural or species-typical behaviors. Research on the effects of EE is biased towards larger mammalian species, with less charismatic species being overlooked. Armadillos are one such overlooked example. A captive environment that results in inactivity, obesity, and associated poor health can negatively affect armadillo well-being. The aim of this study was to evaluate how the implementation of four physical object-based EEs could positively affect the behaviors of three armadillo species, housed in four similar exhibits. Behavioral data were collected both before (baseline) and during (treatment) EE periods, alongside of visitor number and environmental temperatures. The EE comprised of a plastic ball or a cardboard tube or a cardboard box, or a scatter-feed, and these were rotated each week of study until each exhibit had received them in turn. Despite the presence of different EE types, activity remained low throughout the study. However, results suggest that the plastic ball and cardboard box increased exploratory behaviors in the armadillos, but no overall increase in activity was noted during the scatter feed. Visitor presence had no effect on armadillo activity, and armadillos showed reduced activity with increasing environmental temperature. Overall, the use of physical object-based EE promoted beneficial natural behaviors in zoo-housed armadillos, but environmental conditions (i.e., temperature) also impacted armadillo activity, suggesting a complicated relationship between an enclosure's environmental variable and any behavioral husbandry measures.

Ethical Considerations in Follicular Unit Excision Surgical Procedures.

Follicular unit excision (FUE) is an increasingly popular hair restoration technique. In many instances, it surpasses linear strip excision (LSE) surgery in terms of number of procedures and clinics dedicated to performing FUE. The rise in popularity relates primarily to a somewhat misguided perception that FUE produces less evidence of a surgical procedure having been performed. This is based on the fact that a linear scar is avoided. The procedure is easier to learn and "less invasive" as compared to LSE harvesting and requires less staff and capital expense. The FUE procedure is aggressively marketed often as "scarless surgery." This false statement, along with the ease of starting an FUE practice, has resulted in various ethical issues related to evaluation, methodology, and business practices. In this chapter, we discuss the ethical issues surrounding FUE hair restoration surgery and the examination of the mathematics of donor management as it relates to the ethical management of the FUE patient.

Never be mute about bird welfare: Swanning around with environmental enrichment.

Environmental enrichment (EE) is commonly provided to animals managed under human care, being beneficial to behavioral diversity and improving animal welfare. Use of EE appears to be particularly beneficial to individual wild animals spending a short period of time in captivity, for example, as part of conservation or rehabilitation programs. This paper documents a case study on the application and relevance of EE for a group of captive mute swans housed in a rescue center. Observational data were analyzed for two groups of juvenile swans that were provided with a physical EE device to increase time spent foraging. Periods of no EE were observed and compared to data from when birds were provided with EE. Results show that EE promoted foraging time and helped to reduce long periods of inactivity in captive birds. EE helped to reduce occurrence of captive-focused (i.e., abnormal behaviors) although these was already seen at very low rates. Inactivity as a measure of welfare in captive swans specifically (and waterbirds generally) should be further investigated to understand potential impacts on bird health. Our research shows the benefits of simple and easy-to-use EE devices on captive animal behavior and how use of EE for individuals spending a short amount of time in captivity (e.g., within a rescue center) could ensure diversity of behavior patterns and promote the performance of adaptive behaviors upon release to the wild.

Five ways to wellbeing at the zoo: improving human health and connection to nature.

Good mental and physical health go hand-in-hand when identifying factors that lead people to experience a better overall quality of life. A growing disconnect to the natural world is worsening the mental health of individuals in many societies. Numerous scientific publications have evidenced that being in nature and access to green and blue spaces positively impact upon humans' physical and mental health. For many people, particularly those living in more urbanized areas, managed natural spaces and borrowed landscapes, such as those found in public parks, wildlife reserves and zoological gardens give the only opportunities for wider engagement with nature. Many zoos are designated green spaces and therefore human visitors can engage with native fauna and flora as well as exotic wild animals. This article reviews the UK Government's "The Five Ways to Wellbeing" concept, applied to zoos and aquariums and thus suggests how zoos and aquariums can use this framework to promote positive nature-connectivity experiences for their visitors and promote good wellbeing. The Five Ways to Wellbeing are Connect, Be active, Take notice, Keep learning, and Give. We illustrate how zoos and aquariums could model their approaches to educational and engagement roles, as well as design initiatives to reach out to local communities via the Five Ways to Wellbeing concept. We show that many of the positive programs and works conducted by zoos and aquariums lend themselves to further engagement with the Five Ways to Wellbeing structure. By taking such a structured approach in the design, implementation and evaluation of their activities, zoos can expand their abilities in connecting humans with nature and further add value to their living collections of animals and plants. By including Wellbeing as a defined aim of the modern zoo, it will be clear to all of those involved in their work, visitors, workers, stakeholders, that zoos are working to promote, protect and preserve positive wellbeing outputs for humans and animals alike.

Changes in Environment and Management Practices Improve Foot Health in Zoo-Housed Flamingos.

Foot lesions are a highly prevalent phenomenon among zoo-housed flamingos, with up to 99.8% of birds affected. These lesions are a recognized welfare concern, increasing the likelihood of bacterial infections, and even septicemia. Although several risk factors have been linked to foot lesions in flamingos (including age, climate, and substrate), there have been few studies looking at changes in foot lesions over time. This study tracked changes in foot lesions for an individual flock of Chilean Flamingos (97 birds) at Dublin Zoo, Ireland, over an 18-month period in response to a mandatory indoor housing order imposed by the Irish Government as a seasonal precautionary measure to prevent the spread of avian influenza. Using a pre-defined scoring system for four common types of foot lesions (hyperkeratosis, fissures, nodular lesions, and papillomatous growths), we show that providing unrestricted access to outdoor habitats and natural substrates (both terrestrial and aquatic) can improve the health and wellbeing of zoo-housed flamingos. This longitudinal study highlights the importance of regular foot health monitoring in flamingos, and the importance of natural aquatic substrates when managing flamingos. As many zoo-housed birds have been spending more time indoors on artificial substrates over recent years due to avian influenza housing orders, it is critical that we assess the impact of such changes in management and habitat access on bird health and welfare.

Age-Related Change in the Association Choices of Two Species of Juvenile Flamingos.

Flamingos are colonial species commonly kept in zoos, well known for their bright plumage and elaborate courtship displays. This project aimed to determine the differences in flock position and association preferences of juvenile Greater Flamingos (Phoenicopterus roseus) and Caribbean Flamingos (P. ruber) housed in the same zoological collection. Little research has been conducted on the association preferences of juvenile flamingos, especially in captive flocks, and therefore this study collected data using photographs taken throughout 2014 and 2015 to further understand association patterns. Data were collected on the age category of each juvenile flamingo observed, the age of their nearest neighbour and their position within the flock, and the location within an enclosure zone at different times of the day. The results showed that Greater Flamingo juveniles mainly associated with individuals of their own age and were most likely positioned at the periphery of their flock significantly more of the time until approximately 24 months of age. Sub-adult Greater Flamingos spent significantly more time associating with adult flamingos at the centre of the flock. In contrast, data collected on Caribbean Flamingos indicated that juveniles did not segregate themselves from the adults as distinctively. Birds aged 13-24 months were observed significantly more at the centre of the flock and had more associations with adult flamingos, in a similar manner to that observed in Greater Flamingos. Due to population management needs, juvenile Caribbean Flamingos were removed from the flock at the start of 2015 and this may have influenced the association and location preferences of the remaining young flamingos. In conclusion, these results indicated that captive juvenile flamingos were often seen away from adult birds and that sub-adult flamingos returned to the heart of their natal flock to associate significantly more with other adult individuals, potentially preparing for mate selection and breeding. Captive enclosure should therefore be spacious enough to enable young flamingos to remove themselves from adult birds so that behavioural development can be unaffected by artificially high rates of aggression.

The Zone Overlap Index: A new measure of shared resource use in the zoo.

It is important that the environment provided in the zoo is relevant to the species being housed and its suitability be easily assessed by personnel. As shared space and resources can overlap in a zoo's enclosure a tool is required to measure the effects of such overlap between individual animals in a shared enclosure. This paper outlines the Pianka Index (PI), a tool used in ecology to quantify niche overlap, that has value in quantifying the amount of time that animals spend in shared enclosure zones. One limitation to this method, however, is that the established method of determining the PI requires division of the enclosure into equally sized zones, something that is not always relevant to a zoo enclosure. To combat this, we created a modified index, entitled the Zone Overlap Index (ZOI). This modified index is the exact mathematical equivalent of the original index when zone sizes are equal. When zone sizes are unequal, the ZOI generates higher values when animals share smaller, as opposed to larger, zones. This is because animals are more likely to share larger enclosure zones simply by chance, and shared use of smaller zones brings individuals into closer proximity with the potential for competition. To illustrate the application of the ZOI, a series of hypothetical situations were generated to reflect real-world scenarios, demonstrating how this index could be used to better understand zone occupancy overlap in the zoo.

Wing condition does not negatively impact time budget, enclosure usage, or social bonds in a flock of both full-winged and flight-restrained greater flamingos.

Zoo management techniques for captive birds, such as flight restraint and enclosure type, may affect behavioral performance and are consequently worthy of investigation. Flamingos are amongst the most popular of zoo-housed birds and, as such, research into their captive management and associated behavioral responses are widely applicable to many thousands of individuals. As a highly social species, understanding social bonds and behavior of the individual bird and the flock overall can help inform decisions that support husbandry and population management. In this project, 41 greater flamingos at Bristol Zoo Gardens were observed for 49 days across spring and summer 2013 to assess the following: (i) social associations within the flock, (ii) overall activity patterns, and (iii) distribution of time within specific enclosure zones for both full-winged and flight-restrained birds living in the same enclosure. Results showed that pinioning interacted with age in regard to flamingo time-activity patterns, but wing condition did not significantly influence association patterns, performance of social interactions, or performance of breeding behavior. Social network analysis revealed that associations were nonrandom and flamingos, of either wing condition, displayed different roles within the network. Birds of similar age formed the strongest bonds. Enclosure usage was not even, suggesting that the flamingos favored specific areas of the enclosure during the observation period. This study showed that wing condition does not affect flamingo behavior, social bonds, or space use, and that age and sex have more of an overall influence on what flamingos do, and with whom they chose to do it. Further research should extend this study into other, larger captive flocks to further refine behavioral measures of welfare for these popular zoo birds.

Two's company, three species is a crowd? A webcam-based study of the behavioural effects of mixed-species groupings in the wild and in the zoo.

Mixed species exhibits in zoos are used to create larger, more stimulating environments to support naturalistic interactions between species. In the wild, mixed species groups are observed as having lower rates of vigilance, presumably due to reduced predation risk through 'detection' and 'dilution' effects. This effect appears to be highly variable depending on factors such as food availability or degree of threat. This study aimed to collect data on mixed-species associations and consequent vigilance rates in the wild, collecting equivalent data from a large mixed-species zoo enclosure to compare the findings between free-ranging and captive populations. The study additionally investigated whether large mixed-species enclosures support natural associations and behaviours, by comparing the behaviour of captive animals with wild counterparts. The study used livestream video feeds from 10 national parks in South Africa and Kenya to observe free-ranging species, and a camera at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park's mixed species African exhibit. Scan and continuous sampling protocols were used simultaneously to record behavioural states as well as the rate of scanning (vigilance) events. GLMMs were run to test whether vigilance of a focal species varied according to the number of animals present, the density of animals in the group, and the diversity of species. In the wild, vigilance decreased with increasing number of animals in the surroundings but in captivity the group size had no impact. The results suggest that in the wild, these species benefit from increased perceived safety in larger groups, regardless of the species making up that group. No effect was noted in the zoo because of a reduced need for animals to show heightened vigilance to the same degree as in the wild. Similarities were observed in associations between species/mixed species group compositions, and in behaviour budgets. These findings provide a preliminary evaluation of how the impact of mixed species groupings may translate from the wild to the zoo, based on the associations and behaviour across a variety of African ungulates.

Individual personality predicts social network assemblages in a colonial bird.

Animal personalities manifest as consistent individual differences in the performance of specific behavioural expressions. Personality research has implications for zoo animal welfare, as it can further our understanding of how captive individuals may differ in their resource use and provide insight into improving individual and group social health. For group living species, personality may enable assortment based on similar behaviour and influence an individual's interactions with conspecifics (e.g. social support). This research aimed to document how personality traits (aggressive, exploratory, submissive) influenced the social network structure of highly social animals in a captive environment. Data were collected from separate flocks of captive Caribbean (Phoenicopterus ruber) and Chilean flamingos (Phoenicopterus chilensis) to identify relationships between birds and examine opportunities for social support. The flocks associated non-randomly, and in both cases, personality was a substantial predictor of network structure. Personality also predicted key elements of Caribbean flamingo social role (degree, betweenness and average association strength) conflict outcome, and propensity to provide social support, however these patterns were not replicated within the Chilean flamingo network. While both species appear to assort by personality, the broader relationship between personality and social role may vary depending on species and context.

Congenital lobar emphysema: A rare cause of respiratory failure in neonates.

Congenital lobar overinflation, also known as congenital lobar emphysema (CLE), is an uncommon (1/20,000-30,000 live births) abnormality characterized by hyperinflation of one or more pulmonary lobes, usually with contralateral displacement of the mediastinum. While the etiology of most cases of CLE is poorly understood and labeled idiopathic, some cases are thought to be due to an intrinsic or extrinsic bronchial wall abnormality causing a ball valve mechanism with resultant hyperinflation of the affected lobe. CLE tends to have a predilection for males presenting insidiously in the first 6 months of life and have respiratory distress and progressive failure, with 50% of cases being asymptomatic at birth. Acquired forms of lobar emphysema are similar but are secondary to prolonged exposure to oxygen and positive pressure ventilation in premature infants. Clinical presentation is variable, ranging from wheezing, increased respiratory effort, cyanosis, feeding difficulties, and reflux or respiratory failure. Chest radiography (CXR) is the initial imaging obtained for any neonate with respiratory distress, which can aid in diagnosis showing overinflation, while computerized tomography (CT) remains the gold standard for confirmatory diagnosis. Treatment is variable and based on clinical severity. Some cases can be managed conservatively, while more severe cases require surgical intervention with lobectomy. Here, we present a case of a neonate in respiratory distress soon after birth, had initial improvement with supportive care, and was found to be secondary to CLE.

Flock size and structure influence reproductive success in four species of flamingo in 540 captive populations worldwide.

As global wildlife populations continue to decline, the health and sustainability of ex situ populations in zoos and aquariums have become increasingly important. However, the majority of managed ex situ populations are not meeting sustainability criteria and are not viable in the long term. Historically, ex situ flamingo (Phoenicopteriformes) populations have shown low rates of reproductive success and improvements are needed for long-term viability. Both flock size and environmental suitability have previously been shown to be important determinants of ex situ flamingo reproductive success in a limited number of sites in some species. Here we combined current and historic globally shared zoological records for four of the six extant species of flamingo (Phoeniconaias minor, Phoenicopterus chilensis, Phoenicopterus roseus, and Phoenicopterus ruber) to analyze how flock size, structure, and climatic variables have influenced reproductive success in ex situ flamingo populations at 540 zoological institutions from 1990 to 2019. Flock size had a strong nonlinear relationship with reproductive success for all species, with flock sizes of 41-100 birds necessary to achieve ca. 50% probability of reproduction. Additionally, an even sex ratio and the introduction of new individuals to a flock both increased ex situ reproductive success in some cases, while climatic variables played a limited role. We demonstrate the conservation management potential from globally shared zoological data and provide species-specific management recommendations to increase the reproductive success of global ex situ flamingo populations: minimum flock sizes should be increased, and we encourage greater collaboration between individual institutions and regional associations in exchanging birds between flocks.

Expanding the role of the future zoo: Wellbeing should become the fifth aim for modern zoos.

Zoos and aquariums have an enormous global reach and hence an ability to craft meaningful conservation action for threatened species, implement educational strategies to encourage human engagement, development and behavior change, and conduct scientific research to enhance the husbandry, roles and impacts of the living collection. The recreational role of the zoo is also vast- people enjoy visiting the zoo and this is often a shared experience amongst family and friends. Evaluating how the zoo influences this "captive audience" and extending its reach to include a compassionate approach to animals and people can further enhance the mission, value, and relevance of their work. The modern zoo's current aims-Conservation, Education, Research and Recreation-provide useful foundations for the activities that zoos conduct at a local and national level. However, to improve sustainability of their actions and outcomes, we feel that Wellbeing should become the fifth aim of the modern zoo for the future- both from an animal perspective (ensuring that populations are managed according to prevailing behavioral needs) and from a human perspective (enhancing access to nature, promoting planetary friendly behavior changes and ways of living, and advancing the wellbeing of the zoo's workforce). This paper provides discussion and review of how Wellbeing is already a substantial part of what zoos work on as well as posing the idea of altering the Recreation aim of the zoo to one of Engagement, which potentially is more measurable and therefore can allow zoo researchers and managers further options for the collection of evidence on the local and global reach of their zoo's aims. Education, Engagement, Conservation, Research and Wellbeing provide a more complete picture of the roles of the modern zoo for the animals (both in situ and ex situ), human visitors and workforce, and to society more widely.

Environmental and Social Influences on the Behaviour of Free-Living Mandarin Ducks in Richmond Park.

Many species of birds are housed in zoos globally and are some of the most popular of animals kept under human care. Careful observations of how species live and behave in their natural habitats can provide us with important knowledge about their needs, adaptations, and internal states, allowing identification of those behaviours that are most important to the individual's physical health and wellbeing. For this study, Mandarin Ducks (Aix galericulata) were chosen as a study species because, like many species of waterfowl, they are widely kept in both private institutions and zoos, yet little research has been conducted on their core needs in captivity. A free-living population of naturalised Mandarin Ducks living in Richmond Park was used for this research. Data on state behaviours (resting, swimming, foraging, perching, preening, and vigilance) were collected five days a week (08:00-18:00) from the 26 March to 26 May 2021. Secondly, temporal, seasonal, environmental, and animal-centric factors (e.g., Sex) were recorded to assess any impact on the Mandarin's time-activity budget. Lastly, a comparison between free-living anmd captive activity was conducted (via the literature) to evaluate whether captive behaviours differ to how they are expressed in the wild. Results showed that free-living Mandarins predominantly rested (19.88% ± 28.97), swam (19.57% ± 19.43) and foraged (19.47% ± 25.82), with variations in activity related to factors such as vegetation cover and pond size. Results also showed differences between the time-budgets of free-living and captive Mandarins, suggesting that captive birds may not always have the opportunity to express species-typical behaviours. This research indicated that study of natural behaviours performed in the wild may help to evaluate "normal" behaviour patterns of zoo-housed individuals and provide evidence for environmental and husbandry alterations that can promote good welfare. However, any potential impact on the activity patterns of free-living species due to human interactions should be considered when assessing deviations between the behaviour of wild and captive individuals.

Does the sound environment influence the behaviour of zoo-housed birds? A preliminary investigation of ten species across two zoos.

In the zoo, the sound environment experienced by captive wild animals will contain numerous anthropogenic features that may elicit different responses to those stimulated by naturally created, or more biologically relevant, sounds. Husbandry activities, visitor presence and neighbouring species (free-living and captive) will all influence the sounds around zoo-housed species; an animal's behavioural responses may therefore provide an insight into how its welfare state is influenced by this changing sound environment. This project aimed to investigate how animal behaviour was influenced by the sound environment at two large UK zoos; one situated in a more rural location and the other in an urban location. Species were selected based on their location in the zoo, the relevance of sound to their natural ecology (e.g., as a form of communication and/or for anti-predator responses) and their novelty as research subjects in the scientific literature. Behavioural data collection was conducted for five days per enclosure per zoo at the population and individual level for birds housed in different styles of enclosure. Instantaneous sampling at one-minute intervals was used to collect information on state behaviours, assessed using a pre-determined species-specific ethogram. Event behaviours were collected continuously for each observation period. The sound environment around or in the enclosure was recorded continuously during each behavioural recording session using a recorder mounted on a tripod. Results showed a variety of responses to the presence of visitors and potential associated changes to sound around the enclosure with some behaviours being more influenced by the presence of visitors (and increases in the volume of sound) compared to others, e.g., vigilance and vocalisations. Overall, birds showed few of the changes thought to indicate poor or impoverished welfare states linked to changes to the sound environment in their enclosure or to the presence of visitors, but we recommend that zoos consider further measurement and recording of sound on a species-by-species basis to capture individual responses and behavioural changes to variation in visitor number and the sound environment.

A New Universal Follicular Unit Excision Classification System for Hair Transplantation Difficulty and Patient Outcome.

Introduction: The difficulty of the follicular unit excision (FUE) hair transplantation procedure is currently attributed to hair curliness and subsurface angulation. Patients possessing the curliest hair shafts are considered the most challenging. Consequently, patients with these features are often denied FUE. However, this practice does not consider intrapatient variation in the graft attrition rate and the rates themselves, which are frequently low in very curly hair where the skin firmness/thickness is average. To better aid practitioners in predicting FUE performance, we have developed a new scoring system (the Sanusi FUE Score Scale [SFS Scale]) based on two major donor variables (hair and skin characteristics). Material and Method: The scale assigns scores to each of three hair subtypes (straight-wavy, curly, and coily-kinky) and each of three skin subtypes (thick/firm, soft/thin, and medium thickness/firmness). The scores were weighted based on the assessment of 13 experienced FUE practitioners from around the globe, who were asked to score each of the three skin and hair characteristics for their contribution to FUE difficulty. Results: On the contribution of skin characteristics to FUE difficulty, 12/13 (92%) practitioners assigned the highest (most difficult) score to thick/firm skin, with medium skin thickness/firmness being the least challenging. The same percentage of practitioners gave the highest difficulty score to coiled-kinky hair subtypes regarding the contribution of hair characteristics to FUE difficulty. All agreed that straight-wavy hair presents the least challenge to FUE performance. Tallying the scores of the skin and hair variables generates a final score range of 2-9, which is associated with five grades/classes of challenge in the FUE procedure, influencing the need for a specialized skill/nuanced approach or equipment. Conclusion: We developed a universal FUE donor scoring scale that accounts for the diversity of human hair and skin types. Further evaluation to determine the validity of this new classification system in predicting and grading FUE difficulty and patient outcomes is warranted.

Assessing trade-offs in avian behaviour using remotely collected data from a webcam.

Individual animals engage in many behaviours which are mutually exclusive, and so where individuals increase the duration of time spent on one type of behavioural activity, this must be offset by a corresponding decrease in at least one other type of behaviour. To understand the variation observed in animal behaviour, researchers need to know how individuals trade-off these mutually-exclusive behaviours within their time-activity budget. In this study, we used remotely collected behavioural observations made from a live-streaming webcam to investigate trade-offs in the behaviour of two bird species, the mute swan (Cygnus olor) and whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus). For both species, we tested for correlations in the duration of time spent on key mutually exclusive behaviours: aggression, foraging, maintenance, and resting. We detected a negative association between aggression and resting behaviours in both species, indicating that increased aggression is achieved at the expense of resting behaviour. In contrast, there was no apparent trade-off between aggression and foraging, aggression and maintenance, or maintenance and resting. Foraging and resting behaviours were negatively correlated in both species, highlighting a trade-off between these distinct modes of behaviour. A trade-off between foraging and maintenance behaviours was detected for the sedentary mute swans, but not the migratory whooper swans. Our findings show how birds can trade-off their time investments in mutually exclusive behaviours within their time-activity budgets. Moreover, our study demonstrates how remotely-collected data can be used to investigate fundamental questions in behavioural research.

Hot-headed peckers: thermographic changes during aggression among juvenile pheasants (Phasianus colchicus).

In group-living vertebrates, dominance status often covaries with physiological measurements (e.g. glucocorticoid levels), but it is unclear how dominance is linked to dynamic changes in physiological state over a shorter, behavioural timescale. In this observational study, we recorded spontaneous aggression among captive juvenile pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) alongside infrared thermographic measurements of their external temperature, a non-invasive technique previously used to examine stress responses in non-social contexts, where peripheral blood is redirected towards the body core. We found low but highly significant repeatability in maximum head temperature, suggesting individually consistent thermal profiles, and some indication of lower head temperatures in more active behavioural states (e.g. walking compared to resting). These individual differences were partly associated with sex, females being cooler on average than males, but unrelated to body size. During pairwise aggressive encounters, we observed a non-monotonic temperature change, with head temperature dropping rapidly immediately prior to an attack and increasing rapidly afterwards, before returning to baseline levels. This nonlinear pattern was similar for birds in aggressor and recipient roles, but aggressors were slightly hotter on average. Our findings show that aggressive interactions induce rapid temperature changes in dominants and subordinates alike, and highlight infrared thermography as a promising tool for investigating the physiological basis of pecking orders in galliforms. This article is part of the theme issue 'The centennial of the pecking order: current state and future prospects for the study of dominance hierarchies'.

Bold Frogs or Shy Toads? How Did the COVID-19 Closure of Zoological Organisations Affect Amphibian Activity?

Amphibians are an understudied group in the zoo-focussed literature. Whilst commonly housed in specialist exhibits and of real conservation value due to the global extinction crisis, amphibian welfare is not often investigated empirically in zoo settings. The limited research that is available suggests that enclosure design (structure, planting and naturalistic theming) has a positive impact on the time that amphibians will be on show to visitors. However, the categorisation of any "visitor effect" (i.e., influences of visitor presence on amphibian activity and time on display) is hard to find. The COVID-19 pandemic forced the closure of zoological organisations in the UK for several months from March 2020, with gradual re-openings from the summer into autumn and winter. This event provided a unique opportunity to study the effect of the lack of visitors, the presence of essential zoo staff only, the wider return of organisational staff, and then the return of visitors over a prolonged period. This project at WWT Slimbridge Wetlands Centre assessed the number of individuals of six species of amphibian-common toad (Bufo bufo), common frog (Rana temporaria), smooth newt (Lissotriton vulgaris), pool frog (Pelophylax lessonae), golden mantella (Mantella aurantiaca) and golden poison dart frog (Phyllobates terribilis)-visible to observers under different conditions. All amphibians were housed in a purpose-built indoor exhibit of individual enclosures and were recorded when visible (as a proportion of the total population of the enclosure) during closure, the return of extra centre staff and visitor periods. The results showed species-specific differences in visibility, with some species of amphibian being more likely to be on view when the presence of people at their enclosure was less likely or in smaller numbers. Such differences are likely related to the specific camouflage or anti-predation tactics in these focal species. Further study to quantify amphibian sensitivity to, and perception of, environmental change caused by public presence (e.g., light levels and sound) would be useful welfare-themed research extensions. Our results can help inform husbandry, collection planning and amphibian enclosure design to reduce any noticeable visitor effects, and provide a useful benchmark for further, more complex, welfare assessment measures.