Prospecting for rare earth element (hyper)accumulators in the Paris Herbarium using X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy reveals new distributional and taxon discoveries.

BACKGROUND: Rare earth elements (REEs) are increasingly crucial for modern technologies. Plants could be used as a biogeochemical pathfinder and a tool to extract REEs from deposits. However, a paucity of information on suitable plants for these tasks exists. METHODS: We aimed to discover new REE-(hyper)accumulating plant species by performing an X-ray fluorescence (XRF) survey at the Herbarium of the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle (MNHN, Paris, France). We selected specific families based on the likelihood of containing REE-hyperaccumulating species, using known taxa that accumulate REEs. A total of 4425 specimens, taken in the two main evolutionary lineages of extant vascular plants, were analysed, including the two fern families Blechnaceae (n = 561) and Gleicheniaceae (n = 1310), and the two flowering plant families Phytolaccaceae (n = 1137) and Juglandaceae (n = 1417). KEY RESULTS: Yttrium (Y) was used as a proxy for REEs for methodological reasons, and a total of 268 specimens belonging to the genera Blechnopsis (n = 149), Dicranopteris (n = 75), Gleichenella (n = 32), Phytolacca (n = 6), Carya (n = 4), Juglans (n = 1) and Sticherus (n = 1) were identified with Y concentrations ranging from the limit of detection (LOD) >49 µg g-1 up to 1424 µg g-1. Subsequently, analysis of fragments of selected specimens by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) revealed that this translated to up to 6423 µg total REEs g-1 in Dicranopteris linearis and up to 4278 µg total REEs g-1 in Blechnopsis orientalis which are among the highest values ever recorded for REE hyperaccumulation in plants. It also proved the validity of Y as an indicator for REEs in XRF analysis of herbarium specimens. The presence of manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn) was also studied by XRF in the selected specimens. Mn was detected in 1440 specimens ranging from the detection limit at 116 µg g-1 up to 3807 µg g-1 whilst Zn was detected in 345 specimens ranging from the detection limit at 77 µg g-1 up to 938 µg g-1. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: This study led to the discovery of REE accumulation in a range of plant species, substantially higher concentrations in species known to be REE hyperaccumulators, and records of REE hyperaccumulators outside of the well-studied populations in China.

Systematics and biogeography of the Old World fern genus Antrophyum.

Antrophyum is one of the largest genera of vittarioid ferns (Pteridaceae) and is most diverse in tropical Asia and the Pacific Islands, but also occurs in temperate Asia, Australia, tropical Africa and the Malagasy region. The only monographic study of Antrophyum was published more than a century ago and a modern assessment of its diversity is lacking. Here, we reconstructed a comprehensively sampled and robustly supported phylogeny for the genus based on four chloroplast markers using Bayesian inference, maximum likelihood and maximum parsimony analyses. We then explored the evolution of the genus from the perspectives of morphology, systematics and historical biogeography. We investigated nine critical morphological characters using a morphometric approach and reconstructed their evolution on the phylogeny. We describe four new species and provide new insight into species delimitation. We currently recognize 34 species for the genus and provide a key to identify them. The results of biogeographical analysis suggest that the distribution of extant species is largely shaped by both ancient and recent dispersal events.

Phylogenomic evolutionary insights in the fern family Gleicheniaceae.

The pantropical fern family Gleicheniaceae comprises approximately 157 species. Seven genera are currently recognized in the family, although their monophyly is still uncertain due to low sampling in phylogenetic studies. We examined the monophyly of the genera through extended sampling, using the first phylogenomic inference of the family including data from both nuclear and plastid genomes. Seventy-six samples were sequenced (70 Gleicheniaceae species and six outgroups) using high throughput sequencing, including all seven currently recognized genera. Plastid and nuclear data were recovered and assembled; the nuclear data was phased to reduce paralogy as well as hybrid noise in the final recovered topology. Maximum likelihood trees were built for each locus, and a concatenated dataset was built for both datasets. A species tree based on a multispecies coalescent model was generated, and divergence time analyses performed. We here present the first genomic phylogenetic inferences concerning Gleicheniaceae, confirming the monophyly of most genera except Sticherus, which we recovered as paraphyletic. Although most of the extant genera of Gleicheniaceae originated during the Mesozoic, several genera show Neogene and even Quaternary diversifications, and our results suggest that reticulation and polyploidy may have played significant roles during this diversification. However, some genera, such as Rouxopteris and Stromatopteris, appear to represent evolutionary relicts.

Systematics and Plastome Evolution in Schizaeaceae.

While the family Schizaeaceae (Schizaeales) represents only about 0.4% of the extant fern species diversity, it differs from other ferns greatly in gross morphologies, niche preferences, and life histories. One of the most notable features in this family is its mycoheterotrophic life style in the gametophytic stage, which appears to be associated with extensive losses of plastid genes. However, the limited number of sequenced plastomes, and the lack of a well-resolved phylogenetic framework of Schizaeaceae, makes it difficult to gain any further insight. Here, with a comprehensive sampling of ~77% of the species diversity of this family, we first inferred a plastid phylogeny of Schizaeaceae using three DNA regions. To resolve the deep relationships within this family, we then reconstructed a plastome-based phylogeny focusing on a selection of representatives that covered all the major clades. From this phylogenomic backbone, we traced the evolutionary histories of plastid genes and examined whether gene losses were associated with the evolution of gametophytic mycoheterotrophy. Our results reveal that extant Schizaeaceae is comprised of four major clades-Microschizaea, Actinostachys, Schizaea, and Schizaea pusilla. The loss of all plastid NADH-like dehydrogenase (ndh) genes was confirmed to have occurred in the ancestor of extant Schizaeaceae, which coincides with the evolution of mycoheterotrophy in this family. For chlorophyll biosynthesis genes (chl), the losses were interpreted as convergent in Schizaeaceae, and found not only in Actinostachys, a clade producing achlorophyllous gametophytes, but also in S. pusilla with chlorophyllous gametophytes. In addition, we discovered a previously undescribed but phylogenetically distinct species hidden in the Schizaea dichotoma complex and provided a taxonomic treatment and morphological diagnostics for this new species-Schizaea medusa. Finally, our phylogenetic results suggest that the current PPG I circumscription of Schizaea is non-monophyletic, and we therefore proposed a three-genus classification moving a subset of Schizaea species sensu PPG I to a third genus-Microschizaea.

Morphological and molecular evidence reject conspecificity of Malagasy and Mascarene Parablechnum (Polypodiopsida, Blechnaceae).

Under the current treatment of the Blechnaceae, only one species of the fern genus Parablechnum is recognised in the western Indian Ocean, often referred to as P.marginatum. Two varieties are currently recognised within it: a type variety present in the Mascarene Islands of Réunion and Mauritius and P.marginatumvar.humbertii in Madagascar. Recent molecular evidence suggested that these two varieties are not closely related, questioning their conspecific status. To collect further evidence to support a taxonomic decision, we performed a morphological study based on 57 herbarium specimens comparing traits from general morphology, cross section of the fertile pinnae, sporangia and spores. As a result, Malagasy specimens can be distinguished morphologically from the Mascarene ones by pinna apex and pinna section, the presence of sporangiasters and spore ornamentation. Additionally, spore size analyses resulted in statistically significant differences between both varieties. Our results, aligned with the available phylogenetic data, support that these two taxa should be recognised as separate species and, hence, we propose the necessary new combination and provide full descriptions.

Two new species in the fern genus Lomariopsis (Lomariopsidaceae) from East Asia.

Two East Asian Lomariopsis (Lomariopsidaceae, Polypodiales) species, Lomariopsismoorei and Lomariopsislongini, which were previously misidentified as L.spectabilis, are here described as new species based on evidence from morphological characters and a molecular phylogeny. The two species differ from the three other described species in East Asia by their venation, pinna shapes, and perine morphology. A phylogeny based on a combined dataset of three chloroplast regions (rbcL+ rps4-trnS + trnL-L-F) showed that L.moorei and L.longini each formed a well-supported monophyletic group which was distantly related to both L.spectabilis and the other morphologically similar East Asian species, L.boninensis.

Plant Taxonomy: A Historical Perspective, Current Challenges, and Perspectives.

Taxonomy is the science that explores, describes, names, and classifies all organisms. In this introductory chapter, we highlight the major historical steps in the elaboration of this science, which provides baseline data for all fields of biology and plays a vital role for society but is also an independent, complex, and sound hypothesis-driven scientific discipline.In a first part, we underline that plant taxonomy is one of the earliest scientific disciplines that emerged thousands of years ago, even before the important contributions of the Greeks and Romans (e.g., Theophrastus, Pliny the Elder, and Dioscorides). In the fifteenth-sixteenth centuries, plant taxonomy benefited from the Great Navigations, the invention of the printing press, the creation of botanic gardens, and the use of the drying technique to preserve plant specimens. In parallel with the growing body of morpho-anatomical data, subsequent major steps in the history of plant taxonomy include the emergence of the concept of natural classification , the adoption of the binomial naming system (with the major role of Linnaeus) and other universal rules for the naming of plants, the formulation of the principle of subordination of characters, and the advent of the evolutionary thought. More recently, the cladistic theory (initiated by Hennig) and the rapid advances in DNA technologies allowed to infer phylogenies and to propose true natural, genealogy-based classifications.In a second part, we put the emphasis on the challenges that plant taxonomy faces nowadays. The still very incomplete taxonomic knowledge of the worldwide flora (the so-called taxonomic impediment) is seriously hampering conservation efforts that are especially crucial as biodiversity has entered its sixth extinction crisis. It appears mainly due to insufficient funding, lack of taxonomic expertise, and lack of communication and coordination. We then review recent initiatives to overcome these limitations and to anticipate how taxonomy should and could evolve. In particular, the use of molecular data has been era-splitting for taxonomy and may allow an accelerated pace of species discovery. We examine both strengths and limitations of such techniques in comparison to morphology-based investigations, we give broad recommendations on the use of molecular tools for plant taxonomy, and we highlight the need for an integrative taxonomy based on evidence from multiple sources.

Genomics of sorghum local adaptation to a parasitic plant.

Host-parasite coevolution can maintain high levels of genetic diversity in traits involved in species interactions. In many systems, host traits exploited by parasites are constrained by use in other functions, leading to complex selective pressures across space and time. Here, we study genome-wide variation in the staple crop Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench and its association with the parasitic weed Striga hermonthica (Delile) Benth., a major constraint to food security in Africa. We hypothesize that geographic selection mosaics across gradients of parasite occurrence maintain genetic diversity in sorghum landrace resistance. Suggesting a role in local adaptation to parasite pressure, multiple independent loss-of-function alleles at sorghum LOW GERMINATION STIMULANT 1 (LGS1) are broadly distributed among African landraces and geographically associated with S. hermonthica occurrence. However, low frequency of these alleles within S. hermonthica-prone regions and their absence elsewhere implicate potential trade-offs restricting their fixation. LGS1 is thought to cause resistance by changing stereochemistry of strigolactones, hormones that control plant architecture and below-ground signaling to mycorrhizae and are required to stimulate parasite germination. Consistent with trade-offs, we find signatures of balancing selection surrounding LGS1 and other candidates from analysis of genome-wide associations with parasite distribution. Experiments with CRISPR-Cas9-edited sorghum further indicate that the benefit of LGS1-mediated resistance strongly depends on parasite genotype and abiotic environment and comes at the cost of reduced photosystem gene expression. Our study demonstrates long-term maintenance of diversity in host resistance genes across smallholder agroecosystems, providing a valuable comparison to both industrial farming systems and natural communities.

Synoptic revision of the fern genus Elaphoglossum Schott ex J.Sm. (Dryopteridaceae) in Madagascar, with the description of 23 new taxa, all but one endemic.

After 15 years of field studies in Madagascar, especially focused on the overlooked fern genus Elaphoglossum (Dryopteridaceae), a synoptic revision of the genus is here presented. Based on more than 2,600 herbarium specimens including collections over 200 years, Elaphoglossum is the second most diversified fern genus in Madagascar, with 52 species and three subspecies (with 76% of endemism). It is to be compared to the 34 species treated by Tardieu-Blot in 1960 for the "Flore de Madagascar et des Comores" or the 38 species listed by Roux in 2009 in the seminal "Synopsis of the Lycopodiophyta and Pteridophyta of Africa, Madagascar and neighboring islands". The 55 taxa represent five out of seven existing generic sections (sect. Amygdalifolia and sect. Wrightiana being monotypic and Neotropical): sect. Lepidoglossa (29 spp. and three subspp.), sect. Elaphoglossum (17 spp.), sect. Setosa (3 spp.), sect. Squamipedia (2 spp.), and sect. Polytrichia (1 sp.). Distribution is given for each species and subspecies, and detailed for each island or archipelago in the Western Indian Ocean (La Réunion, Mauritius, Seychelles, and Comoros). Twenty species and three subspecies are newly described, all but one endemic to Madagascar: Elaphoglossum ambrense Rouhan, Elaphoglossum andohahelense Rouhan, Elaphoglossum anjanaharibense Rouhan, Elaphoglossum approximatum Rouhan, Elaphoglossum brachymischum Rouhan, Elaphoglossum cerussatum Tardieu subsp. brunneum Rouhan, Elaphoglossum coracinolepis Rouhan, Elaphoglossum desireanum Rouhan, Elaphoglossum glabricaule Rouhan, Elaphoglossum gladiifolium Rouhan, Elaphoglossum leucolepis (Baker) Krajina ex Tardieu subsp. nanolepis Rouhan, Elaphoglossum leucolepis (Baker) Krajina ex Tardieu subsp. nigricans Rouhan, Elaphoglossum longiacuminatum Rouhan, Elaphoglossum patriceanum Rouhan, Elaphoglossum perangustum Rouhan, Elaphoglossum prominentinervulum Rouhan, Elaphoglossum rakotondrainibeae Rouhan, Elaphoglossum repandum Rouhan, Elaphoglossum sabineanum Rouhan, Elaphoglossum sinensiumbrarum Rouhan, Elaphoglossum subglabricaule Rouhan, Elaphoglossum tsaratananense Rouhan, and Elaphoglossum viridicaule Rouhan. Morphological description, distribution map, and original illustrations are provided for each new taxon. Novel identification keys to the sections and all species from Madagascar are also presented.

A global phylogeny of Stegnogramma ferns (Thelypteridaceae): generic and sectional revision, historical biogeography and evolution of leaf architecture.

The thelypteroid fern genus Stegnogramma s.l. contains around 18-35 species and has a global, cross-continental distribution ranging from tropical to temperate regions. Several genera and infrageneric sections have been recognized previously in Stegnogramma s.l., but their phylogenetic relationships are still unclear. In this study, we present a global phylogeny of Stegnogramma s.l. with the most comprehensive sampling to date and aim to pinpoint the phylogenetic positions of biogeographically and taxonomically important taxa. Based on the reconstructed historical biogeography and character evolution, we propose a new (infra)generic classification and discuss the diversification of Stegnogramma s.l. in a biogeographical context. New names or combinations are made for 12 (infra)species, including transferring the monotypic species of Craspedosorus to Leptogramma. Finally, we discuss a possible link between leaf architecture and ecological adaptation, and hypothesize that the increase in leaf dissection and free-vein proportion is an adaptive feature to cool climates in Stegnogramma s.l.

A first checklist of the Pteridophytes of Togo (West Africa).

BACKGROUND: The present work proposes, for the first time, a study exclusively focused on the diversity of Pteridophytes in Togo.The study was based on fieldwork that resulted in 869 new collections gathered between 2013 and 2017 in the country and on yet existing herbarium specimens kept at the Herbaria of Lomé and Paris. Thus, a total number of 1092 specimens collected throughout the country served as a basis for this work, to which were added the known, published occurrences of Pteridophytes for the country. NEW INFORMATION: At the end of this study, a total diversity of 134 species belonging to 53 genera and 25 families and 12 orders were recorded and documented for the country. It results in 73 newly cited species for Togolese flora, including 61 spontaneous species. Lycopodiopsida (18 species) and Polypodiopsida (116 species) classes are both represented. The Polypodiales order is the most represented with 97 species. The Pteridaceae and Aspleniaceae families are the most diverse with 24 and 22 species respectively. Finally, notes were provided on species distribution at national level.

First insights on the biogeographical history of Phlegmariurus (Lycopodiaceae), with a focus on Madagascar.

We explored the biogeographical history of a group of spore-bearing plants focusing on Phlegmariurus (Lycopodiaceae), a genus of lycophytes comprising ca. 250 species. Given its wide distribution in the Southern Hemisphere, Phlegmariurus provides a good model to address questions about the biogeographical processes underlying southern distributions, notably in Madagascar and surrounding islands, also called the Western Indian Ocean (WIO). Our aims were (i) to discuss the systematics of the Malagasy species in the light of molecular phylogenetic results, (ii) to provide the first dating analysis focused on Phlegmariurus and (iii) to understand the relative role of vicariance, dispersal and diversification in the origin of the Malagasy Phlegmariurus species. The phylogenetic relationships were inferred based on three plastid DNA regions (rbcL, trnH-psbA and trnL+trnL-trnF) and on a dataset comprising 93 species, including 16 Malagasy species (80% of the total Malagasy diversity for the genus). Our results highlighted the need to combine Malagasy Huperzia species in Phlegmariurus, as well as the polyphyly of widely distributed species: Phlegmariurus phlegmaria, P. squarrosus and P. verticillatus with the Malagasy species not belonging with the types of P. phlegmaria or P. squarrosus. This led us to propose new circumscriptions of Phlegmariurus species, especially in the WIO. Our dating analysis, relying on fossil calibrations, showed that Phlegmariurus would have originated in the Late Cretaceous and diversified in the Early Eocene. The biogeographical analysis highlighted uncertainties about the biogeographical origins of Phlegmariurus: the genus would have started to diversify in an ancestral range covering at least the Neotropics and Australasia. Hypotheses on the biogeographical history of Phlegmariurus were discussed, especially the roles of long distance dispersal, migration via Antarctica and via the Boreotropics. Six long distance dispersal events over the last 40 Ma would explain the Malagasy species diversity of Phlegmariurus, in combination with an important in situ diversification starting in the Miocene.

Morphological characterization of infra-generic lineages in Deparia (Athyriaceae: Polypodiales).

Deparia, including the previously recognized genera Lunathyrium, Dryoathyrium (=Parathyrium), Athyriopsis, Triblemma, and Dictyodroma, is a fern genus comprising about 70 species in Athyriaceae. In this study, we inferred a robust Deparia phylogeny based on a comprehensive taxon sampling (~81% of species) that captures the morphological diversity displayed in the genus. All Deparia species formed a highly supported monophyletic group. Within Deparia, seven major clades were identified, and most of them were characterized by inferring synapomorphies using 14 morphological characters including leaf architecture, petiole base, rhizome type, soral characters, spore perine, and leaf indument. These results provided the morphological basis for an infra-generic taxonomic revision of Deparia.

Global phylogeny and biogeography of the fern genus Ctenitis (Dryopteridaceae), with a focus on the Indian Ocean region.

The diverse and pantropical genus Ctenitis, in the Dryopteridaceae, has been largely ignored in phylogenetic studies until now. In this study, we fill in this gap by reconstructing the first comprehensive phylogeny of the genus including 53 species currently recognized in the genus Ctenitis, among which seven species formerly were assigned to the genus Pseudotectaria and one to Heterogonium. Special emphasis was given to the sampling of species occurring in the African-Indian Ocean region. The presented results include reconstruction of a biogeographic scenario based on estimated divergence times and ancestral area reconstruction. Our findings confirm the inclusion, within Ctenitis, of the Indian Ocean species formerly placed in Pseudotectaria and Heterogonium. The crown group divergence was estimated to date back to the Oligocene or Early Miocene. The biogeographical scenario indicates an initial divergence of the Asian-Pacific ranges and the neotropical ranges, and a subsequent colonization of the Afro-Madagascan region by a lineage with neotropical ancestors. The Afro-Madagascan lineage splits into a lineage endemic to the Mascarene islands and a lineage occurring in Madagascar, the Comoros and Africa. The range expansion towards Africa and Madagascar was estimated to date back to the late Miocene, whereas the estimated ages for the onset of the diversification of the Mascarene diversity is consistent with the ages of these young, volcanic islands. The absence of any extant species of Ctenitis with a multi-continental distribution range and the rarity of inter-island dispersal and speciation in the Indian Ocean region suggest a limited contribution of long distance dispersal to the biogeographical history of this fern genus, versus a high contribution of local speciation.

Madagascar sheds new light on the molecular systematics and biogeography of grammitid ferns: New unexpected lineages and numerous long-distance dispersal events.

Based on a worldwide phylogenetic framework filling the taxonomic gap of Madagascar and surrounding islands of the Western Indian Ocean (WIO), we revisited the systematics of grammitid fern species (Polypodiaceae). We also investigated the biogeographic origin of the extant diversity in Madagascar and estimated the relative influence of vicariance, long-distance dispersals (LDD) and in situ diversification. Phylogenetic inferences were based on five plastid DNA regions (atpB, rbcL, rps4-trnS, trnG-trnR, trnL-trnF) and the most comprehensive taxonomic sampling ever assembled (224 species belonging to 31 out of 33 recognized grammitids genera). 31 species from Madagascar were included representing 87% of the described diversity and 77% of the endemics. Our results confirmed a Paleotropical clade nested within an amphi-Atlantic grade. In addition, we identified three new major clades involving species currently belonging to Grammitis s.l., Ctenopterella and Enterosora. We resolved for the first time Grammitis s.s. as monophyletic, and Ctenopterella (newly tested here) and Enterosora as polyphyletic. The Neotropical genus Moranopteris was shown to also occur in Madagascar through a newly discovered species. Most importantly, we suggest a >30% inflation of the species number in the WIO due to the hidden diversity in >10 cryptic lineages, best explained by high morphological homoplasy. Molecular dating and ancestral areas reconstruction allowed identifying the Neotropics as the predominant source of LDD to the African-WIO region, with at least 12 colonization events within the last 20Ma. Repeated eastward migrations may be explained by transoceanic westerly winds transporting the dust-like spores. Tropical Asia s.l. would also have played a (minor) role through one dispersal event to Madagascar at the end of the Oligocene. Last, within the complex Malagasy region made of a mosaic of continental and oceanic islands located close to the African continent, we showed that contrary to theoretical expectations and empirical evidence in angiosperms, Africa does not act as a dispersal source and Madagascar seems to have a more important influence on the regional dynamics: we observed both in situ species diversification and dispersal out of Madagascar. This influence also extends beyond the region, since one dispersal event probably originated from Madagascar and reached the Subantarctic island of Amsterdam.

The French Muséum national d'histoire naturelle vascular plant herbarium collection dataset.

We provide a quantitative description of the French national herbarium vascular plants collection dataset. Held at the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, Paris, it currently comprises records for 5,400,000 specimens, representing 90% of the estimated total of specimens. Ninety nine percent of the specimen entries are linked to one or more images and 16% have field-collecting information available. This major botanical collection represents the results of over three centuries of exploration and study. The sources of the collection are global, with a strong representation for France, including overseas territories, and former French colonies. The compilation of this dataset was made possible through numerous national and international projects, the most important of which was linked to the renovation of the herbarium building. The vascular plant collection is actively expanding today, hence the continuous growth exhibited by the dataset, which can be fully accessed through the GBIF portal or the MNHN database portal (available at: https://science.mnhn.fr/institution/mnhn/collection/p/item/search/form). This dataset is a major source of data for systematics, global plants macroecological studies or conservation assessments.

Historical biogeography of the fern genus Deparia (Athyriaceae) and its relation with polyploidy.

The wide geographical distribution of many fern species is related to their high dispersal ability. However, very limited studies surveyed biological traits that could contribute to colonization success after dispersal. In this study, we applied phylogenetic approaches to infer historical biogeography of the fern genus Deparia (Athyriaceae, Eupolypods II). Because polyploids are suggested to have better colonization abilities and are abundant in Deparia, we also examined whether polyploidy could be correlated to long-distance dispersal events and whether polyploidy could play a role in these dispersals/establishment and range expansion. Maximum likelihood and Bayesian phylogenetic reconstructions were based on a four-region combined cpDNA dataset (rps16-matK IGS, trnL-L-F, matK and rbcL; a total of 4252 characters) generated from 50 ingroup (ca. 80% of the species diversity) and 13 outgroup taxa. Using the same sequence alignment and maximum likelihood trees, we carried out molecular dating analyses. The resulting chronogram was used to reconstruct ancestral distribution using the DEC model and ancestral ploidy level using ChromEvol. We found that Deparia originated around 27.7Ma in continental Asia/East Asia. A vicariant speciation might account for the disjunctive distribution of East Asia-northeast North America. There were multiple independent long-distance dispersals to Africa/Madagascar (at least once), Southeast Asia (at least once), south Pacific islands (at least twice), Australia/New Guinea/New Zealand (at least once), and the Hawaiian Islands (at least once). In particular, the long-distance dispersal to the Hawaiian Islands was associated with polyploidization, and the dispersal rate was slightly higher in the polyploids than in diploids. Moreover, we found five species showing recent infraspecific range expansions, all of which took place concurrently with polyploidization. In conclusion, our study provides the first investigation using phylogenetic and biogeographic analyses trying to explore the link between historical biogeography and ploidy evolution in a fern genus and our results imply that polyploids might be better colonizers than diploids.

Eastward colonization of the Mediterranean Basin by two geographically structured clades: The case of Odontites Ludw. (Orobanchaceae).

The biogeography of Mediterranean groups is very heterogeneous, because of the complex geologic and climatic history of the region. Our goal was to reconstruct the spatio-temporal history of the genus Odontites. In particular, we aimed to infer its area of origin and colonization routes, investigate its timing of diversification, and examine possible correlations with major environmental events. Based on sequencing of three chloroplast markers (psbA-trnH, trnL-trnF and trnC-ycf6), we reconstructed phylogenetic relationships among species. We performed molecular dating analyses (based on a large-scale rbcL dataset), ancestral areas reconstructions, and interpreted the observed patterns in the light of the complex geologic and climatic histories of the region. Our results suggested that Bartsiella and Bornmuellerantha should be reintegrated into Odontites s.l. The genus originated in the Iberian Peninsula ca. 18.9Ma and diverged into two main clades 16.2Ma, but species diversification was most intense <5-6Ma. The two clades showed a clear geographic pattern: one clade originated in the Iberian Peninsula and Morocco, and extended its range to Eastern North Africa and the central Mediterranean Basin; the other clade originated in Europe and Western Asia, and mostly diversified within this ancestral area. The eastward colonization of the Mediterranean Basin contrasts with many other plant groups. Nevertheless, the burst of diversification in the Plio-Pleistocene agrees with what has been reported for other groups, and is concomitant with the end of the Messinian Salinity Crisis, onset of the Mediterranean climate and Quaternary glaciations. The link between phylogeny and geography suggests limited dispersal, and most dispersal events may have occurred overland rather than overseas.

The Pteridaceae family diversity in Togo.

BACKGROUND: The Pteridaceae family is the largest fern family in Togo by its specific and generic diversity. Like all other families of ferns in the country, Pteridaceae are poorly studied and has no identification key. The objective of this study is to perform a taxonomic revision and list establishment of this family of leptosporangiate ferns in the light of current available knowledge about the family. Pteridaceae was also assessed in terms of its diversity and conservation status, this was conducted through the recent field data and the existing herbaria specimens. The current study permits to confirm the presence of Pteris similis Kuhn. which brought the number of Pteridaceae to 17 in Togo. NEW INFORMATION: This study provides first local scientific information about the fern flora of Togo. It confirmed the presence of Pterissimilis Kuhn. in Togo and brought the Pteridaceae family diversity to 17 species. A species identification key is provided for the easy identification of the Pteridaceae of Togo.