Early use of tocilizumab in patients with severe pneumonia secondary to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection and poor prognostic criteria: Impact on mortality rate and intensive care unit admission.

ABSTRACT: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, keeps spreading globally. Evidence suggests that a subgroup of patients with severe symptomatology might have cytokine storms, which increases mortality. The use of interleukin-6 (IL-6) inhibitors may help in controlling the pathological immune response to the virus. Tocilizumab, a monoclonal antibody against IL-6, stands as an optional treatment for COVID-19 patients presenting this inflammatory hyper-response.We conducted a retrospective, observational, cohort study including 50 patients affected by COVID-19 with severe pneumonia and poor prognosis criteria, who have also undergone standard treatment; 36 of these patients additionally received tocilizumab in an early stage. The need for intensive care unit (ICU) admission, mortality, recovery of respiratory function, and improvement of biochemical and hematological parameters were compared between cohorts.Most patients were men, non-smokers and the most frequently reported comorbidities were hypertension and diabetes. Recurrent symptoms were fever, cough, and dyspnoea. 54.8% of patients from the tocilizumab group needed intubation, while in the control group 85.7% needed it. Treatment with tocilizumab significatively increased IL-6 levels, (554.45; CI 95% 186.69, 1032.93; P < .05) while C-reactive protein mean levels were reduced (-108.19; CI 95% -140.15, -75.33; P < .05), but no significant difference was found between cohorts. In comparison with the controls, tocilizumab reduced mortality (25.0% vs 42.9%, P = .021) and the number of ICU admissions (63.9% vs 100.0%, P = .021). 44.1% of patients treated with tocilizumab showed favorable radiological evolution, when compared with 15.4% of patients from the control group.Tocilizumab may improve clinical symptoms and mitigate deterioration observed in severe COVID-19 patients, and could be considered as an effective therapeutic option in subjects experiencing a significant inflammatory response to the disease.

Ambulance cardiopulmonary resuscitation: outcomes and associated factors in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. / Supervivencia y factores asociados a la práctica de reanimación cardiopulmonar en curso entre los pacientes con parada cardiaca extrahospitalaria.

OBJECTIVES: To assess factors associated with survival of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) in patients who underwent cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) during ambulance transport. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Retrospective analysis of a registry of OHCA cases treated between 2008 and 2014. We included patients who had not recovered circulation at the time it was decided to transport to a hospital and who were rejected as non-heart-beating donors. Multivariate analysis was used to explore factors associated with the use of ambulance CPR, survival, and neurologic outcome. RESULTS: Out of a total of 7241 cases, 259 (3.6%) were given CPR during emergency transport. The mean (SD) age was 51.6 (23.6) years; 27 (10.1%) were aged 16 years or younger. The following variables were associated with the use of CPR during transport: age 16 years or under (odds ratio [OR], 6.48; 95% CI, 3.91-10.76); P<.001)], witnessed OHCA (OR, 1.62; 95% CI, 1.16-2.26; P=.004), cardiac arrest outside the home (OR, 3.17; 95% CI, 2.38-4.21; P<.001), noncardiac cause (OR, 1.47; 95% CI, 1.07-2.02; P=.019], initially shockable rhythm (OR, 1.67; 95% CI, 1.17-2.37; P=.004), no prior basic life support (OR, 3.48; 95% CI, 2.58-4.70; P<.001), and orotracheal intubation (OR, 1.93; 95% CI, 1.24-2.99; P=.003). One patient (0.38%) survived to discharge with good neurologic outcome. CONCLUSION: Ambulance CPR by a physician on board is applied in few OHCA cases. Young patient age, cardiac arrest outside the home, the presence of a witness, lack of a shockable rhythm on responder arrival, lack of basic life support prior to responder arrival, noncardiac cause, and orotracheal intubation are associated with the use of ambulance CPR, a strategy that can be considered futile.

OBJETIVO: Conocer la supervivencia y los factores asociados a la realización de reanimación cardiopulmonar (RCP) en curso entre los pacientes con parada cardiaca extrahospitalaria (PCR). METODO: Análisis retrospectivo de un registro de casos de PCR entre 2008 y 2014. Se incluyeron los pacientes con PCR sin recuperación espontánea de pulso en el momento de la toma de decisión del traslado hospitalario y que fueron desestimados para donación en asistolia. Se realizó un análisis multivariante para determinar las variables que se asociaron al uso de una estrategia de reanimación en curso y se determinó la supervivencia y el resultado neurológico en dicho grupo de casos. RESULTADOS: Se incluyeron 7.241 pacientes, de los cuales 259 (3,6%) fueron trasladados al hospital con RCP en curso. La edad media fue 51,6 (DE 23,6) años, de los cuales 27 (10,1%) casos tenían <= 16 años. Las variables que se asociaron con el uso de RCP en curso fueron: edad <= 16 años [OR 6,48 (IC95% 3,91-10,76); p < 0,001)], PCR presenciada [OR 1,62 (IC95% 1,16-2,26); p = 0,004], PCR ocurrida fuera del domicilio [OR 3,17 (IC95% 2,38-4,21); p < 0,001)]; etiología no cardiaca [OR 1,47 (IC95%1,07-2,02); p = 0,019], ritmo inicial desfibrilable [OR 1,67 (IC95% 1,17-2,37); p = 0,004], no existencia de soporte vital previo (SVp) [OR 3,48 (IC95% 2,58-4,70); p < 0,001] y realización de intubación orotraqueal (IOT) [OR 1,93 (IC95% 1,24-2,99); p = 0,003]. Un paciente (0,38%) sobrevivió al alta con buen estado neurológico. CONCLUSIONES: La RCP en curso en servicios de emergencias con médico a bordo es una estrategia poco frecuente en casos de PCR. La juventud del paciente, que la PCR suceda fuera del domicilio, sea presenciada, no exista soporte vital previo, tenga un ritmo inicial desfibrilable, una etiología no cardiaca y que se consiga IOT se asocian con esta estrategia cuyo resultado final puede considerarse fútil.

Implant of permanent pacemaker during acute coronary syndrome: Mortality and associated factors in the ARIAM registry.

BACKGROUND: Patients with acute coronary syndrome complicated with high degree atrioventricular block still have a high mortality. A low percentage of these patients need a permanent pacemaker (PPM) but mortality and associated factors with the PPM implant in acute coronary syndrome patients are not known. We assess whether PPM implant is an independent variable in the mortality of acute coronary syndrome patients. Also, we explored the variables that remain independently associated with PPM implantation. METHODS: This was an observational study on the Spanish ARIAM register. The inclusion period was from January 2001 to December 2011. This registry included all Andalusian acute coronary syndrome patients. Follow-up for global mortality was until November 2013. RESULTS: We selected 27,608 cases. In 62 patients a PPM was implanted (0.024%). The mean age in PPM patients was 70.71±11.214 years versus 64.46±12.985 years in patients with no PPM. PPM implant was associated independently with age (odds ratio (OR) 1.031, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.007-1.055), with left ventricular branch block (OR 6.622, 95% CI 2.439-18.181), with any arrhythmia at intensive care unit admission (OR 2.754, 95% CI 1.506-5.025) and with heart failure (OR 3.344, 95% CI 1.78-8.333). PPM implant was independently associated with mortality (OR 11.436, 95% CI 1.576-83.009). In propensity score analysis PPM implant was still associated with mortality (OR 5.79, 95% CI 3.27-25.63). CONCLUSION: PPM implant is associated with mortality in the acute coronary syndrome population in the ARIAM registry. Advanced age, heart failure, arrhythmias and left ventricular branch block at intensive care unit admission were found associated factors with PPM implant in acute coronary syndrome patient.

[Factors related to the use of pediatric emergency services: results from the Spanish National Health Survey]. / Factores relacionados con la utilización de los servicios de urgencias en la población pediátrica española. Resultados de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the frequency of use of Spanish pediatric emergency services, and to describe user profiles and geographic variations. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Descriptive study based on data from the Spanish National Health Survey. We calculated descriptive statistics and analyzed crude and adjusted odds ratios (ORs). RESULTS: Thirty-five percent of the 5495 respondents had come to an emergency department in the past year, and 88.1% of them had used the services of a Spanish national health service hospital. Factors associated with higher use of emergency services were male sex of the patient, (OR, 1.202; 95% CI, 1.047-1.381), a higher educational level of parents (OR, 1.255; 95% CI, 0.983-1.603), and younger age of the child (OR, 0.909; 95% CI, 0.894-0.924). Emergency department use varied widely from one Spanish community to another. There was a positive correlation between use and the presence of a foreign-born population (ρ=0.495, P=.031). CONCLUSION: The rate of emergency department use is high in Spain. Variability between geographic areas is considerable, and some variation is explained by population characteristics.

OBJETIVO: Determinar la frecuencia de utilización de los servicios de urgencias (SU) en la población pediátrica española, describir el perfil de los usuarios y la variabilidad geográfica. METODO: Estudio descriptivo a partir de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud. Se calcularon estadísticos descriptivos, odds ratio (OR) crudas y ajustadas. RESULTADOS: De los 5.495 encuestados, el 35% acudió al SU en el último año, utilizando el 88,1% los servicios del Sistema Sanitario Público. El sexo varón [OR: 1,202 (IC 95%: 1,047-1,381)] y el nivel de estudios superiores [OR: 1,255 (IC 95%: 0,983-1,603)] se asociaron de forma significativa, y directa a la frecuentación, mientras que la edad lo hizo de forma inversa [OR: 0,909 (IC 95%: 0,894-0,924)]. La utilización de los SU es muy variable entre comunidades autónomas, encontrándose una correlación positiva con la población extranjera (ρ = 0,495, p = 0,031). CONCLUSIONES: La tasa de utilización de los SU en España es elevada. Existe una variabilidad considerable entre zonas geográficas, en parte explicada por las características de la población.

Increasing Levels of Positive End-expiratory Pressure Improve the Left Ventricular Strain.

PURPOSE: The goal of this study was to evaluate possible changes in the left myocardial performance of patients with cardiogenic shock (CS) during ascending levels of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) using speckle-tracking echocardiography. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was an interventional clinical study performed on CS patients under mechanical ventilation. These patients underwent echocardiography after 15 to 30 minutes of progressive increases in PEEP zero end-expiratory pressure (ZEEP) (PEEP 5, PEEP 10, PEEP 15 cm H2O). We evaluated the changes caused by these increasing levels of PEEP on the E/E' ratio and the parameters of left ventricular systolic and diastolic functions, including longitudinal strain (S) and strain rate (SR). Analyses of mean values were carried out using analysis of variance. RESULTS: A total of 65 CS patients were included. Their mean age was 68.58±14.61 years. Progressive increases in PEEP induced a significant decrease in the E/E' ratio (ZEEP=12.87±1.81; PEEP=5, 8.39±3.61; PEEP=10, 6.34±1.73; and PEEP=15, 7.10±0.37; P<0.0001). Although we did not find significant changes in left ventricular ejection fraction, a clear increase in left ventricular S and SR occurred (ZEEP=-13, 15±1.27; PEEP=5, -16.97±4.01; PEEP=10, -16.89±0.46; PEEP=15, -15.39±4.21; and ZEEP=-1.02±0.02; PEEP=5, -1.49±0.13; PEEP=10, -1.57±0.21; PEEP=15, -1.24±0.29, respectively; all values were significant). CONCLUSIONS: Increasing levels of PEEP improve the left ventricular S and SR. PEEP levels could modify the performance of left ventricular fibers.

Stress echocardiography in patients who experienced mechanical ventilation weaning failure.

INTRODUCTION: Critically ill patients may suffer varying degrees of temporary myocardial dysfunction during respiratory weaning that could play an important role in weaning failure. OBJECTIVES: In this study, we tried to assess the existence of temporary diastolic dysfunction during respiratory weaning. METHODS: Inclusion period is from 2006 to 2015. In this study, we included 181 ventilated patients with cardiogenic shock that were being weaned from mechanical ventilation. Twenty of those patients were successfully weaned from mechanical ventilation, and the rest (161) experienced complications in their weaning process. All patients had a left ventricular ejection fraction >0.45 and E/E' ratio≤8, did not require vasoactive drugs at that time, and did not have remaining significant ischemic disease. We divided our patients into 3 groups, as follows: A, patients who could not tolerate a T-tube and required pressure-support ventilation (82); B, patients who successfully tolerated a T-tube period (20); and C, patients who could not tolerate spontaneous breathing modes of mechanical ventilation and remained on assisted mechanical ventilation. We performed stress echocardiography for the last two groups; using dobutamine to assess diastolic function and using ephedrine to evaluate functional mitral regurgitation (MR). We estimated pulmonary capillary wedge pressure through the E/E' ratio and the flow in the pulmonary veins. RESULTS: In group A (ie, those patients who could not tolerate a T-tube trial), we observed an increase in the E/E' ratio (6.32±0.77 vs 15.2±6.65; P=.0001) and a worsening of strain (S) and strain rate (SR) (-13.6±1.80 vs -11.88±5.6, P=.0001; and -1.3±1.28 vs -0.95±0.38, P=.0001; respectively). We did not observe a change in the E/E' ratio during stress echocardiogram on those patients with successful weaning from mechanical ventilation (7.41±0.43 vs 8.38±4.57, P=.001). However, we did see in this group an increased peak velocity of the S wave and of SR (-16.11±08.72 vs -19.89±5.62 and -1.48±0.23 vs -1.59±0.21, P=.001; respectively). In 42 weaning failure patients, the dobutamine echocardiography showed an increased E/E' ratio (7.41±0.43 vs 15.98±7.98; P=.0001) and deterioration of S (-15.41±09.56 vs -12.72±6.55; P=.0001) and SR (-1.41±0.78 vs -1.22±0.65; P=.0001). In 37 patients without systolic or diastolic impairment and functional MR grade >2, ephedrine echocardiography showed an increase of effective regurgitant volume (29.56±11.32 mL vs 46.56±0.13 mL, P=.0001) and effective regurgitant orifice area (0.19±0.09 cm2 vs 0.31±0.09 cm2, P=.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Stress echocardiography may be helpful in detecting silent diastolic and systolic dysfunction or severe MR that could have a major impact on respiratory weaning.

Protein intake and fracture risk in elderly people: a case-control study.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: We investigated whether protein intake (PI) is related to osteoporotic fractures (OP) in the elderly by analyzing vegetable protein intake (VPI), animal protein intake (API), and animal/vegetable protein intake ratio (AVR) and by calcium intake (CaI). METHODS: A 1:1 matched by age and sex case-control study with 167 cases was carried out at the Hospital of Jaen (Spain). Cases were patients aged ≥65 years with a low-energy fracture. Controls were people without previous fractures. Diet was assessed by a food frequency questionnaire. Multivariable analyses were fitted using analysis of covariance (for comparison of adjusted means) and conditional logistic regression (estimating adjusted odds ratios [ORs]). RESULTS: The control-group showed a higher API (p = 0.046) even when CaI was <800 mg/day (p = 0.041). ORs for AVR were 0.68 (0.38-1.19) and 0.38 (0.15-0.98), respectively with a p for trend = 0.046. A PI<15% of the total energy intake showed an OR of 2.86 (1.10-7.43). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with fracture history have lower API suggesting that high API reduce the occurrence of OP in elderly even if CaI is <800 mg/day. A PI<15% of total calories were associated with an increased risk of OP in elderly.

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy--a clinical review.

Stress cardiomyopathy is characterised by reversible left ventricular dysfunction. It simulates an acute coronary syndrome (ACS), presenting with precordial pain or dyspnoea, changes of the ST segment, T wave, or QTc interval on electrocardiogram, and raised cardiac enzymes. Typical findings are disturbances of segmental contractility (apical hypokinesia or akinesia), with normal epicardial coronary arteries. The true prevalence is unknown, as the syndrome may be under-diagnosed; it is more common in postmenopausal women. There is usually a trigger in the form of physical or psychological stress. The electrocardiographic, echocardiographic, and ventriculographic changes resolve spontaneously over a variable period of time (from days to months). There are a number of pathophysiological theories, none of which has been shown to be definitive, suggesting that all of them may be involved to some extent. The prognosis is generally favourable, and recurrence is very rare.

Evaluation of the performance of echocardiography in acute coronary syndrome patients during their stay in coronary units.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the frequency and the factors associated with performance of echocardiography in acute coronary syndrome (ACS) patients during their stay in intensive care units or coronary care units (ICU/CCU). METHODS: Retrospective cohort study including all patients diagnosed with acute coronary syndrome-unstable angina (UA), acute myocardial infarction (AMI)-included in the 'ARIAM' Spanish multi-centre register. The study period was from June 1996 to December 2005. The follow-up period is limited to the time of stay in the Intensive Care Units or Coronary Care Units (ICUs/CCUs). A univariate analysis was carried out on the patients with UA and AMI according to whether or not echocardiograms were performed during their stay in ICU/CCU. In addition the data was evaluated for any temporal variation in the performance of echocardiography, and two multivariate analyses were carried out to evaluate the factors associated with performance of echocardiography in UA and AMI patients. RESULTS: The study period included 45,688 AMI patients and 17,277 UA patients. Echocardiograms were performed in 26.87% AMI patients and 16.75% UA patients. In total, 15,172 echocardiograms were performed in ACS patients (23.6%). The multivariate analysis demonstrated that the variables associated with the performance of echocardiography in UA were: Killip and Kimball class, cigarette smoking, family history of cardiovascular events, cardiogenic shock, uncontrolled angina, mechanical ventilation and treatment with ACE inhibitors, while the presence of previous AMI was associated with fewer echocardiograms being performed. In AMI, the multivariate analysis showed the following variables to be associated with the performance of echocardiography: Killip and Kimball class, Q-AMI, right heart failure, the need for insertion of Swan-Ganz catheter, cardiogenic shock, high-degree AV block and the administration of ACE inhibitors, while age was associated with fewer being performed. Over the 10 years of the study period, there was a discrete but significant increase in the use of echocardiography in patients in ICU/CCU. CONCLUSIONS: Echocardiography is not commonly used in ACS patients while in ICU/CCU. UA and AMI patients who did have echocardiograms during their stay in ICU/CCU were chiefly those presenting heart failure and major complications, and represent a subpopulation with poor prognosis. The performance of echocardiography in ACS patients increased slightly over the length of their stay in ICU/CCU.

Administration of intrapericardial tissue adhesive after cardiac rupture and cardiac tamponade.

OBJECTIVE: To describe a series of patients treated with intrapericardial glue. DESIGN: Case reports. Descriptive study. PATIENTS: We describe the results obtained using the injection of a surgical intrapericardial adhesive in 19 patients who presented cardiac tamponade and shock after cardiac rupture. The technique was done using puncture and echocardiographic subxiphoid control. At the one-year follow-up, 5 patients had survived, with neither pseudoaneurysms nor constriction. One patient was injected with said adhesive in the right ventricular cavity. CONCLUSIONS: Pericardial drainage, followed by the administration of intrapericardial glue may be an attractive technique. This technique should be studied for its possible utility when faced with surgical impossibility.

Echocardiographic hemodynamic monitoring in the critically ill patient.

Echocardiography has shown to be an essential diagnostic tool in the critically ill patient's assessment. In this scenario the initial fluid therapy, such as it is recommended in the actual clinical guidelines, not always provides the desired results and maintains a considerable incidence of cardiorrespiratory insufficiency. Echocardiography can council us on these patients' clinical handling, not only the initial fluid therapy but also on the best-suited election of the vasoactive/ inotropic treatment and the early detection of complications. It contributes as well to improving the etiological diagnosis, allowing one to know the heart performance with more precision. The objective of this manuscript is to review the more important parameters that can assist the intensivist in theragnosis of hemodynamically unstable patients.

Sepsis-induced cardiomyopathy.

Myocardial dysfunction is one of the main predictors of poor outcome in septic patients, with mortality rates next to 70%. During the sepsis-induced myocardial dysfunction, both ventricles can dilate and diminish its ejection fraction, having less response to fluid resuscitation and catecholamines, but typically is assumed to be reversible within 7-10 days. In the last 30 years, It's being subject of substantial research; however no explanation of its etiopathogenesis or effective treatment have been proved yet. The aim of this manuscript is to review on the most relevant aspects of the sepsis-induced myocardial dysfunction, discuss its clinical presentation, pathophysiology, etiopathogenesis, diagnostic tools and therapeutic strategies proposed in recent years.

Heart rupture predictors in Spanish myocardial infarction patients: evaluation using propensity score analysis.

BACKGROUND: The aim was to evaluate factors associated with the development of heart rupture in a Spanish registry of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) patients. MATERIAL/METHODS: This was a retrospective study of cohorts, including all patients diagnosed with AMI included in the ARIAM Spanish multicenter registry. The study period was from June 1996 to December 2005. The follow-up period was limited to the time of stay in intensive care or coronary care units. Multivariate logistic regression was used to study the factors associated with the development of heart rupture. A propensity score analysis was also performed to determine the involvement of beta blockers, ACE inhibitors, and fibrinolytics in the development of heart rupture. RESULTS: 16,815 AMI patients were included. Heart rupture occurred in 477 (2.8%). Heart rupture was associated with female gender, older age, the absence of previous infarct, and the administration of thrombolysis, while ACE inhibitors and beta blockers acted as protective variables. The propensity score analysis showed that fibrinolysis was a variable associated with heart rupture except in the younger subgroup and in the subgroup with less delay in administration. It was also found that beta blockers and ACE inhibitors are variables providing protection against heart rupture. CONCLUSIONS: Heart rupture is associated with older age, female gender, absence of previous infarct, and the administration of thrombolysis, while ACE inhibitors and beta blockers seem to prevent this complication.

Successful administration of alteplase in a venous thromboembolism crossing through a patent foramen ovale.

We describe a case report observed via an echocardiography of a venous thromboembolism (VTE) that crosses through the patent foramen ovale to the left atrium and is successfully treated with alteplase. This is a case report of a tertiary care hospital without cardiac surgery facilities. An 81-year-old female seeking medical attention for dyspnoea, arriving at hospital with hypoxaemia, hypotension and prerenal failure. A computed tomographic (CT) pulmonary angiography was carried out, revealing a VTE. A transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) was carried out, exposing emboli in the right cavities, said thrombus crossing through the patent foramen ovale to the left atrium. A systemic thrombolysis is carried out using alteplase which improves the patient's condition and results in the disappearance of thrombotic images in the various cardiac cavities. The evolution is positive and there is no evidence of embolic or haemorrhagic complications. When a paradoxical embolism is present, in the context of a serious VTE, carrying out thrombolysis could be a therapeutic option.

Septic shock secondary to infection of a left ventricular thrombus.

We report the case of a 45-year-old woman who developed severe shock with multiorgan failure requiring admission to intensive care. Endomyocardial biopsy was performed and she was diagnosed with sepsis secondary to left ventricular thrombus abscess. Surgery was contraindicated and the patient received exclusively medical treatment; the clinical course was satisfactory and the patient is alive one year later. An apical thrombus may rarely be complicated by infection. Although management normally requires surgical excision, medical management may be effective in situations in which surgery is contraindicated.

Sustained ventricular arrhythmias in unstable angina patients: results of the ARIAM database.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to investigate patients with unstable angina (UA) and the predictive factors of these arrhythmias and to determine whether this complication behaves as an independent variable with regard to mortality, increased length of stay in an ICU/CCU, and the performance of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). MATERIAL/METHODS: The retrospective cohort study included all patients diagnosed with UA and included in the Spanish "ARIAM" database between June 1996 and December 2005. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to evaluate the factors associated with these arrhythmias. 17,616 patients were included. RESULTS: Sustained ventricular tachycardia (SVT) occurred in 0.5%. The factors associated with its development were age, cardiogenic shock, and non-sustained ventricular tachycardia. SVT was associated with mortality (adjusted OR: 9.836, 95%CI: 1.81-53.33). Ventricular fibrillation (VF) occurred in 1%. In the multivariate study the variables that persistently associated independently with the development of VF were gender, Killip class, and high degree atrioventricular block (HDAVB). VF was associated with higher mortality (27.1% vs. 0.9%). Nevertheless, VF was not seen to be a variable independently associated with mortality in UA patients. Only VF was an independent variable in length of stay (adjusted OR: 2.059, 95%CI: 1.175-3.609). Neither SVT nor VF were independent variables associated with PCI. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with UA complicated by SVT or VF represent a special high-risk subgroup with poor prognosis, which could lead to their being stratified towards a poor prognosis subgroup.

Cardiogenic shock in acute coronary syndrome.

This is a review of current knowledge on cardiogenic shock (CS), with particular attention to recommended management. The bibliography for the study was compiled through a search of different databases between 1966-2008. The references cited in the selected articles were also reviewed. The selection criteria included all reports published on CS, from case reports and case series to controlled studies. Languages used were Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese, German, and English. Cardiogenic shock is the most frequent cause of in-hospital death as a complication of acute coronary syndrome. The incidence is about 7% and, despite therapeutic advances, it continues to have an ominous prognosis, with mortality rates of over 50%. Coronary reperfusion is fundamental in the management of cardiogenic shock, particularly with the use of percutaneous coronary intervention. However, if this is not available, systemic thrombolysis may be performed together with balloon counterpulsation or the use of pressor drugs. Despite the historical importance of the Swan-Ganz catheter, this would appear to have limited use, with echocardiography nonetheless having a fundamental role in the management of CS. Although patients with cardiogenic shock often present a left ventricular ejection fraction of around 30%, survivors often have a good functional classification one year after the event. Neurohormonal and inflammatory mechanisms play a fundamental role in the pathophysiology of CS. These mechanisms are currently the target of studies looking into developing new therapeutic strategies.

Cardiogenic shock in acute coronary syndrome in the Spanish population.

BACKGROUND: To evaluate the frequency and factors associated with cardiogenic shock (CS) in acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and unstable angina (UA) and percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). MATERIAL/METHODS: Spanish registry. The study period was June 1996 to December 2005. Follow-up was length of stay in an intensive care or coronary care unit (ICU/CCU). Multivariate studies evaluated factors associated with CS, mortality in CS, and PCI performance. RESULTS: The study included 45.688 AMI patients and 17.277 UA patients. Cardiogenic shock occurred in 9.3% of patients with AMI and 1.79% of those with UA, frequencies that decreased over time. Variables associated with cardiogenic shock in AMI patients were female sex, age, type of infarction, diabetes, previous stroke, arrhythmia, previous angiography, complicated angina, and reinfarction. Hypertension and oral beta-blocking, ACE inhibitor, and hypolipidemic agents protected against CS. In UA, these variables were age, previous angina or AMI, right ventricular heart failure, arrhythmia. Beta-blocking agents were associated with a reduction in CS. Deaths from CS and AMI, respectively, were 62.8% and 38.7% in persons with UA. Doing PCIs has increased significantly; it is more prevalent in ex-smokers and those with right ventricular heart failure and mechanical ventilation; lower performance is associated with need for cardiopulmonary resuscitation; patients who die are older or have a history of AMI. CONCLUSIONS: There has been a slight drop in the frequency of CS and its mortality. Factors associated with CS are similar to those associated with acute coronary syndromes. The frequency of PCI was low.