Mechanistic insight into functionally different human islet polypeptide (hIAPP) amyloid: the intrinsic role of the C-terminal structural motifs.

Targeting amyloidosis requires high-resolution insight into the underlying mechanisms of amyloid aggregation. The sequence-specific intrinsic properties of a peptide or protein largely govern the amyloidogenic propensity. Thus, it is essential to delineate the structural motifs that define the subsequent downstream amyloidogenic cascade of events. Additionally, it is important to understand the role played by extrinsic factors, such as temperature or sample agitation, in modulating the overall energy barrier that prompts divergent nucleation events. Consequently, these changes can affect the fibrillation kinetics, resulting in structurally and functionally distinct amyloidogenic conformers associated with disease pathogenesis. Here, we have focused on human Islet Polypeptide (hIAPP) amyloidogenesis for the full-length peptide along with its N- and C-terminal fragments, under different temperatures and sample agitation conditions. This helped us to gain a comprehensive understanding of the intrinsic role of specific functional epitopes in the primary structure of the peptide that regulates amyloidogenesis and subsequent cytotoxicity. Intriguingly, our study involving an array of biophysical experiments and ex vivo data suggests a direct influence of external changes on the C-terminal fibrillating sequence. Furthermore, the observations indicate a possible collaborative role of this segment in nucleating hIAPP amyloidogenesis in a physiological scenario, thus making it a potential target for future therapeutic interventions.

Analysis of Sanitizer Rotation on the Susceptibility, Biofilm Forming Ability and Caco-2 Cell Adhesion and Invasion of Listeria.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of sanitizer use conditions on the susceptibility, biofilm forming ability and pathogenicity of Listeria monocytogenes. Two different strains of L. monocytogenes and a non-pathogenic L. innocua were exposed to sodium hypochlorite, benzalkonium chloride and peroxyacetic acid at different concentrations (4 to 512 ppm) and treatment times (30 s to 5 min), respectively. Under the tested conditions, no significant difference (p > 0.05) in reduction was observed among the three tested sanitizers. A reduction of 1 to 8 log CFU/mL was observed depending upon the sanitizer concentration and treatment times. The survived cells at the highest sublethal concentration and treatment time of a particular sanitizer upon re-exposure to the same or different sanitizer showed either no change or increased susceptibility when compared to parent strains. Upon repeated exposure to sanitizers at progressively increasing concentrations from 1 to 128 ppm, L. innocua was able to survive concentrations of up to 32 ppm benzalkonium chloride and 64 ppm peroxyacetic acid treatments, respectively. At the tested sub-lethal concentrations, no significant difference (p > 0.05) in biofilm formation was observed among the tested strains. Caco-2 interaction with L. innocua showed a reduction in invasion ability with sublethal concentrations of sanitizers.

Intracellular hemin is a potent inhibitor of the voltage-gated potassium channel Kv10.1.

Heme, an iron-protoporphyrin IX complex, is a cofactor bound to various hemoproteins and supports a broad range of functions, such as electron transfer, oxygen transport, signal transduction, and drug metabolism. In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of heme as a non-genomic modulator of ion channel functions. Here, we show that intracellular free heme and hemin modulate human ether à go-go (hEAG1, Kv10.1) voltage-gated potassium channels. Application of hemin to the intracellular side potently inhibits Kv10.1 channels with an IC50 of about 4 nM under ambient and 63 nM under reducing conditions in a weakly voltage-dependent manner, favoring inhibition at resting potential. Functional studies on channel mutants and biochemical analysis of synthetic and recombinant channel fragments identified a heme-binding motif CxHx8H in the C-linker region of the Kv10.1 C terminus, with cysteine 541 and histidines 543 and 552 being important for hemin binding. Binding of hemin to the C linker may induce a conformational constraint that interferes with channel gating. Our results demonstrate that heme and hemin are endogenous modulators of Kv10.1 channels and could be exploited to modulate Kv10.1-mediated cellular functions.

A rationally designed synthetic antimicrobial peptide against Pseudomonas-associated corneal keratitis: Structure-function correlation.

Contact lens wearers are at an increased risk of developing Pseudomonas-associated corneal keratitis, which can lead to a host of serious ocular complications. Despite the use of topical antibiotics, ocular infections remain a major clinical problem, and a strategy to avoid Pseudomonas-associated microbial keratitis is urgently required. The hybrid peptide VR18 (VARGWGRKCPLFGKNKSR) was designed to have enhanced antimicrobial properties in the fight against Pseudomonas-induced microbial keratitis, including contact lens-related keratitis. In this paper, VR18's modes of action against Pseudomonas membranes were shown by live cell Raman spectroscopy, live cell NMR, live-cell fluorescence microscopy and measures taken using sparsely tethered bilayer lipid membrane bacterial models to be via a bacterial-specific membrane disruption mechanism. The high affinity and selectivity of the peptide were then demonstrated using in vivo, in vitro and ex vivo models of Pseudomonas infection. The extensive data presented in this work suggests that topical employment of the VR18 peptide would be a potent therapeutic agent for the prevention or remedy of Pseudomonas-associated microbial keratitis.

Deciphering the Role of Ion Channels in Early Defense Signaling against Herbivorous Insects.

Plants and insect herbivores are in a relentless battle to outwit each other. Plants have evolved various strategies to detect herbivores and mount an effective defense system against them. These defenses include physical and structural barriers such as spines, trichomes, cuticle, or chemical compounds, including secondary metabolites such as phenolics and terpenes. Plants perceive herbivory by both mechanical and chemical means. Mechanical sensing can occur through the perception of insect biting, piercing, or chewing, while chemical signaling occurs through the perception of various herbivore-derived compounds such as oral secretions (OS) or regurgitant, insect excreta (frass), or oviposition fluids. Interestingly, ion channels or transporters are the first responders for the perception of these mechanical and chemical cues. These transmembrane pore proteins can play an important role in plant defense through the induction of early signaling components such as plasma transmembrane potential (Vm) fluctuation, intracellular calcium (Ca2+), and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, followed by defense gene expression, and, ultimately, plant defense responses. In recent years, studies on early plant defense signaling in response to herbivory have been gaining momentum with the application of genetically encoded GFP-based sensors for real-time monitoring of early signaling events and genetic tools to manipulate ion channels involved in plant-herbivore interactions. In this review, we provide an update on recent developments and advances on early signaling events in plant-herbivore interactions, with an emphasis on the role of ion channels in early plant defense signaling.

A Sugarcane G-Protein-Coupled Receptor, ShGPCR1, Confers Tolerance to Multiple Abiotic Stresses.

Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) is a prominent source of sugar and serves as bioenergy/biomass feedstock globally. Multiple biotic and abiotic stresses, including drought, salinity, and cold, adversely affect sugarcane yield. G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are components of G-protein-mediated signaling affecting plant growth, development, and stress responses. Here, we identified a GPCR-like protein (ShGPCR1) from sugarcane and energy cane (Saccharum spp. hybrids) and characterized its function in conferring tolerance to multiple abiotic stresses. ShGPCR1 protein sequence contained nine predicted transmembrane (TM) domains connected by four extracellular and four intracellular loops, which could interact with various ligands and heterotrimeric G proteins in the cells. ShGPCR1 sequence displayed other signature features of a GPCR, such as a putative guanidine triphosphate (GTP)-binding domain, as well as multiple myristoylation and protein phosphorylation sites, presumably important for its biochemical function. Expression of ShGPCR1 was upregulated by drought, salinity, and cold stresses. Subcellular imaging and calcium (Ca2+) measurements revealed that ShGPCR1 predominantly localized to the plasma membrane and enhanced intracellular Ca2+ levels in response to GTP, respectively. Furthermore, constitutive overexpression of ShGPCR1 in sugarcane conferred tolerance to the three stressors. The stress-tolerance phenotype of the transgenic lines corresponded with activation of multiple drought-, salinity-, and cold-stress marker genes, such as Saccharum spp. LATE EMBRYOGENESIS ABUNDANT, DEHYDRIN, DROUGHT RESPONSIVE 4, GALACTINOL SYNTHASE, ETHYLENE RESPONSIVE FACTOR 3, SALT OVERLY SENSITIVE 1, VACUOLAR Na+/H+ ANTIPORTER 1, NAM/ATAF1/2/CUC2, COLD RESPONSIVE FACTOR 2, and ALCOHOL DEHYDROGENASE 3. We suggest that ShGPCR1 plays a key role in conferring tolerance to multiple abiotic stresses, and the engineered lines may be useful to enhance sugarcane production in marginal environments with fewer resources.

LRRC8 family proteins within lysosomes regulate cellular osmoregulation and enhance cell survival to multiple physiological stresses.

LRRC8 family proteins on the plasma membrane play a critical role in cellular osmoregulation by forming volume-regulated anion channels (VRACs) necessary to prevent necrotic cell death. We demonstrate that intracellular LRRC8 proteins acting within lysosomes also play an essential role in cellular osmoregulation. LRRC8 proteins on lysosome membranes generate large lysosomal volume-regulated anion channel (Lyso-VRAC) currents in response to low cytoplasmic ionic strength conditions. When a double-leucine L706L707 motif at the C terminus of LRRC8A was mutated to alanines, normal plasma membrane VRAC currents were still observed, but Lyso-VRAC currents were absent. We used this targeting mutant, as well as pharmacological tools, to demonstrate that Lyso-VRAC currents are necessary for the formation of large lysosome-derived vacuoles, which store and then expel excess water to maintain cytosolic water homeostasis. Thus, Lyso-VRACs allow lysosomes of mammalian cells to act as the cell`s "bladder." When Lyso-VRAC current was selectively eliminated, the extent of necrotic cell death to sustained stress was greatly increased, not only in response to hypoosmotic stress, but also to hypoxic and hypothermic stresses. Thus Lyso-VRACs play an essential role in enabling cells to mount successful homeostatic responses to multiple stressors.

Tobacco Hornworm (Manduca sexta) Oral Secretion Elicits Reactive Oxygen Species in Isolated Tomato Protoplasts.

Plants are under constant attack by a suite of insect herbivores. Over millions of years of coexistence, plants have evolved the ability to sense insect feeding via herbivore-associated elicitors in oral secretions, which can mobilize defense responses. However, herbivore-associated elicitors and the intrinsic downstream modulator of such interactions remain less understood. In this study, we show that tobacco hornworm caterpillar (Manduca sexta) oral secretion (OS) induces reactive oxygen species (ROS) in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) protoplasts. By using a dye-based ROS imaging approach, our study shows that application of plant-fed (PF) M. sexta OS generates significantly higher ROS while artificial diet-fed (DF) caterpillar OS failed to induce ROS in isolated tomato protoplasts. Elevation in ROS generation was saturated after ~140 s of PF OS application. ROS production was also suppressed in the presence of an antioxidant NAC (N-acetyl-L-cysteine). Interestingly, PF OS-induced ROS increase was abolished in the presence of a Ca2+ chelator, BAPTA-AM (1,2-bis(o-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid). These results indicate a potential signaling cascade involving herbivore-associated elicitors, Ca2+, and ROS in plants during insect feeding. In summary, our results demonstrate that plants incorporate a variety of independent signals connected with their herbivores to regulate and mount their defense responses.

Comparison of Synthetic Neuronal Model Membrane Mimics in Amyloid Aggregation at Atomic Resolution.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a severe neurodegenerative disorder caused by abnormal accumulation of toxic amyloid plaques of the amyloid-beta (Aß) or the tau proteins in the brain. The plaque deposition leading to the collapse of the cellular integrity is responsible for a myriad of surface phenomena acting at the neuronal lipid interface. Recent years have witnessed dysfunction of the blood-brain barriers (BBB) associated with AD. Several studies support the idea that BBB acts as a platform for the formation of misfolded Aß peptide, promoting oligomerization and fibrillation, compromising the overall integrity of the central nervous system. While the amyloid plaque deposition has been known to be responsible for the collapse of the BBB membrane integrity, the causal effect relationship between BBB and Aß amyloidogenesis remains unclear. In this study, we have used physiologically relevant synthetic model membrane systems to gain atomic insight into the functional aspects of the lipid interface. Here, we have used a minimalist BBB mimic, POPC/POPG/cholesterol/GM1, to compare with the native BBB (total lipid brain extract (TLBE)), to understand the molecular events occurring in the membrane-induced Aß40 amyloid aggregation. Our study showed that the two membrane models accelerated the Aß40 aggregation kinetics with differential secondary structural transitions of the peptide. The observed structural transitions are defined by the lipid compositions, which in turn undermines the differences in lipid surface phenomena, leading to peptide induced cellular toxicity in the neuronal membrane.

Impact of intracellular hemin on N-type inactivation of voltage-gated K+ channels.

N-type inactivation of voltage-gated K+ channels is conferred by the N-terminal "ball" domains of select pore-forming α subunits or of auxiliary ß subunits, and influences electrical cellular excitability. Here, we show that hemin impairs inactivation of K+ channels formed by Kv3.4 α subunits as well as that induced by the subunits Kvß1.1, Kvß1.2, and Kvß3.1 when coexpressed with α subunits of the Kv1 subfamily. In Kvß1.1, hemin interacts with cysteine and histidine residues in the N terminus (C7 and H10) with high affinity (EC50 100 nM). Similarly, rapid inactivation of Kv4.2 channels induced by the dipeptidyl peptidase-like protein DPP6a is also sensitive to hemin, and the DPP6a mutation C13S eliminates this dependence. The results suggest a common mechanism for a dynamic regulation of Kv channel inactivation by heme/hemin in N-terminal ball domains of Kv α and auxiliary ß subunits. Free intracellular heme therefore has the potential to regulate cellular excitability via modulation of Kv channel inactivation.

Small-molecule activation of lysosomal TRP channels ameliorates Duchenne muscular dystrophy in mouse models.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a devastating disease caused by mutations in dystrophin that compromise sarcolemma integrity. Currently, there is no treatment for DMD. Mutations in transient receptor potential mucolipin 1 (ML1), a lysosomal Ca2+ channel required for lysosomal exocytosis, produce a DMD-like phenotype. Here, we show that transgenic overexpression or pharmacological activation of ML1 in vivo facilitates sarcolemma repair and alleviates the dystrophic phenotypes in both skeletal and cardiac muscles of mdx mice (a mouse model of DMD). Hallmark dystrophic features of DMD, including myofiber necrosis, central nucleation, fibrosis, elevated serum creatine kinase levels, reduced muscle force, impaired motor ability, and dilated cardiomyopathies, were all ameliorated by increasing ML1 activity. ML1-dependent activation of transcription factor EB (TFEB) corrects lysosomal insufficiency to diminish muscle damage. Hence, targeting lysosomal Ca2+ channels may represent a promising approach to treat DMD and related muscle diseases.

CRISPR-Cas9 Genome Editing in Human Cell Lines with Donor Vector Made by Gibson Assembly.

CRISPR Cas9 genome editing allows researchers to modify genes in a multitude of ways including to obtain deletions, epitope-tagged loci, and knock-in mutations. Within 6 years of its initial application, CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing has been widely employed, but disadvantages to this method, such as low modification efficiencies and off-target effects, need careful consideration. Obtaining custom donor vectors can also be expensive and time-consuming. This chapter details strategies to overcome barriers to CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing as well as recent developments in employing this technique.

Rapamycin directly activates lysosomal mucolipin TRP channels independent of mTOR.

Rapamycin (Rap) and its derivatives, called rapalogs, are being explored in clinical trials targeting cancer and neurodegeneration. The underlying mechanisms of Rap actions, however, are not well understood. Mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), a lysosome-localized protein kinase that acts as a critical regulator of cellular growth, is believed to mediate most Rap actions. Here, we identified mucolipin 1 (transient receptor potential channel mucolipin 1 [TRPML1], also known as MCOLN1), the principle Ca2+ release channel in the lysosome, as another direct target of Rap. Patch-clamping of isolated lysosomal membranes showed that micromolar concentrations of Rap and some rapalogs activated lysosomal TRPML1 directly and specifically. Pharmacological inhibition or genetic inactivation of mTOR failed to mimic the Rap effect. In vitro binding assays revealed that Rap bound directly to purified TRPML1 proteins with a micromolar affinity. In both healthy and disease human fibroblasts, Rap and rapalogs induced autophagic flux via nuclear translocation of transcription factor EB (TFEB). However, such effects were abolished in TRPML1-deficient cells or by TRPML1 inhibitors. Hence, Rap and rapalogs promote autophagy via a TRPML1-dependent mechanism. Given the demonstrated roles of TRPML1 and TFEB in cellular clearance, we propose that lysosomal TRPML1 may contribute a significant portion to the in vivo neuroprotective and anti-aging effects of Rap via an augmentation of autophagy and lysosomal biogenesis.

Isolation of Enteric Glial Cells from the Submucosa and Lamina Propria of the Adult Mouse.

The enteric nervous system (ENS) consists of neurons and enteric glial cells (EGCs) that reside within the smooth muscle wall, submucosa and lamina propria. EGCs play important roles in gut homeostasis through the release of various trophic factors and contribute to the integrity of the epithelial barrier. Most studies of primary enteric glial cultures use cells isolated from the myenteric plexus after enzymatic dissociation. Here, a non-enzymatic method to isolate and culture EGCs from the intestinal submucosa and lamina propria is described. After manual removal of the longitudinal muscle layer, EGCs were liberated from the lamina propria and submucosa using sequential HEPES-buffered EDTA incubations followed by incubation in commercially available non-enzymatic cell recovery solution. The EDTA incubations were sufficient to strip most of the epithelial mucosa from the lamina propria, allowing the cell recovery solution to liberate the submucosal EGCs. Any residual lamina propria and smooth muscle was discarded along with the myenteric glia. EGCs were easily identified by their ability to express glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). Only about 50% of the cell suspension contained GFAP+ cells after completing tissue incubations and prior to plating on the poly-D-lysine/laminin substrate. However, after 3 days of culturing the cells in glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF)-containing culture media, the cell population adhering to the substrate-coated plates comprised of >95% enteric glia. We created a hybrid mouse line by breeding a hGFAP-Cre mouse to the ROSA-tdTomato reporter line to track the percentage of GFAP+ cells using endogenous cell fluorescence. Thus, non-myenteric enteric glia can be isolated by non-enzymatic methods and cultured for at least 5 days.

CO-independent modification of K+ channels by tricarbonyldichlororuthenium(II) dimer (CORM-2).

Although toxic when inhaled in high concentrations, the gas carbon monoxide (CO) is endogenously produced in mammals, and various beneficial effects are reported. For potential medicinal applications and studying the molecular processes underlying the pharmacological action of CO, so-called CO-releasing molecules (CORMs), such as tricabonyldichlororuthenium(II) dimer (CORM-2), have been developed and widely used. Yet, it is not readily discriminated whether an observed effect of a CORM is caused by the released CO gas, the CORM itself, or any of its intermediate or final breakdown products. Focusing on Ca2+- and voltage-dependent K+ channels (KCa1.1) and voltage-gated K+ channels (Kv1.5, Kv11.1) relevant for cardiac safety pharmacology, we demonstrate that, in most cases, the functional impacts of CORM-2 on these channels are not mediated by CO. Instead, when dissolved in aqueous solutions, CORM-2 has the propensity of forming Ru(CO)2 adducts, preferentially to histidine residues, as demonstrated with synthetic peptides using mass-spectrometry analysis. For KCa1.1 channels we show that H365 and H394 in the cytosolic gating ring structure are affected by CORM-2. For Kv11.1 channels (hERG1) the extracellularly accessible histidines H578 and H587 are CORM-2 targets. The strong CO-independent action of CORM-2 on Kv11.1 and Kv1.5 channels can be completely abolished when CORM-2 is applied in the presence of an excess of free histidine or human serum albumin; cysteine and methionine are further potential targets. Off-site effects similar to those reported here for CORM-2 are found for CORM-3, another ruthenium-based CORM, but are diminished when using iron-based CORM-S1 and absent for manganese-based CORM-EDE1.

Gastrin Induces Nuclear Export and Proteasome Degradation of Menin in Enteric Glial Cells.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: The multiple endocrine neoplasia, type 1 (MEN1) locus encodes the nuclear protein and tumor suppressor menin. MEN1 mutations frequently cause neuroendocrine tumors such as gastrinomas, characterized by their predominant duodenal location and local metastasis at time of diagnosis. Diffuse gastrin cell hyperplasia precedes the appearance of MEN1 gastrinomas, which develop within submucosal Brunner's glands. We investigated how menin regulates expression of the gastrin gene and induces generation of submucosal gastrin-expressing cell hyperplasia. METHODS: Primary enteric glial cultures were generated from the VillinCre:Men1FL/FL:Sst-/- mice or C57BL/6 mice (controls), with or without inhibition of gastric acid by omeprazole. Primary enteric glial cells from C57BL/6 mice were incubated with gastrin and separated into nuclear and cytoplasmic fractions. Cells were incubated with forskolin and H89 to activate or inhibit protein kinase A (a family of enzymes whose activity depends on cellular levels of cyclic AMP). Gastrin was measured in blood, tissue, and cell cultures using an ELISA. Immunoprecipitation with menin or ubiquitin was used to demonstrate post-translational modification of menin. Primary glial cells were incubated with leptomycin b and MG132 to block nuclear export and proteasome activity, respectively. We obtained human duodenal, lymph node, and pancreatic gastrinoma samples, collected from patients who underwent surgery from 1996 through 2007 in the United States or the United Kingdom. RESULTS: Enteric glial cells that stained positive for glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP+) expressed gastrin de novo through a mechanism that required PKA. Gastrin-induced nuclear export of menin via cholecystokinin B receptor (CCKBR)-mediated activation of PKA. Once exported from the nucleus, menin was ubiquitinated and degraded by the proteasome. GFAP and other markers of enteric glial cells (eg, p75 and S100B), colocalized with gastrin in human duodenal gastrinomas. CONCLUSIONS: MEN1-associated gastrinomas, which develop in the submucosa, might arise from enteric glial cells through hormone-dependent PKA signaling. This pathway disrupts nuclear menin function, leading to hypergastrinemia and associated sequelae.

A voltage-dependent K+ channel in the lysosome is required for refilling lysosomal Ca2+ stores.

The resting membrane potential (Δψ) of the cell is negative on the cytosolic side and determined primarily by the plasma membrane's selective permeability to K+ We show that lysosomal Δψ is set by lysosomal membrane permeabilities to Na+ and H+, but not K+, and is positive on the cytosolic side. An increase in juxta-lysosomal Ca2+ rapidly reversed lysosomal Δψ by activating a large voltage-dependent and K+-selective conductance (LysoKVCa). LysoKVCa is encoded molecularly by SLO1 proteins known for forming plasma membrane BK channels. Opening of single LysoKVCa channels is sufficient to cause the rapid, striking changes in lysosomal Δψ. Lysosomal Ca2+ stores may be refilled from endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+ via ER-lysosome membrane contact sites. We propose that LysoKVCa serves as the perilysosomal Ca2+ effector to prime lysosomes for the refilling process. Consistently, genetic ablation or pharmacological inhibition of LysoKVCa, or abolition of its Ca2+ sensitivity, blocks refilling and maintenance of lysosomal Ca2+ stores, resulting in lysosomal cholesterol accumulation and a lysosome storage phenotype.

Gastric Acid Secretion from Parietal Cells Is Mediated by a Ca2+ Efflux Channel in the Tubulovesicle.

Gastric acid secretion by parietal cells requires trafficking and exocytosis of H/K-ATPase-rich tubulovesicles (TVs) toward apical membranes in response to histamine stimulation via cyclic AMP elevation. Here, we found that TRPML1 (ML1), a protein that is mutated in type IV mucolipidosis (ML-IV), is a tubulovesicular channel essential for TV exocytosis and acid secretion. Whereas ML-IV patients are reportedly achlorhydric, transgenic overexpression of ML1 in mouse parietal cells induced constitutive acid secretion. Gastric acid secretion was blocked and stimulated by ML1 inhibitors and agonists, respectively. Organelle-targeted Ca2+ imaging and direct patch-clamping of apical vacuolar membranes revealed that ML1 mediates a PKA-activated conductance on TV membranes that is required for histamine-induced Ca2+ release from TV stores. Hence, we demonstrated that ML1, acting as a Ca2+ channel in TVs, links transmitter-initiated cyclic nucleotide signaling with Ca2+-dependent TV exocytosis in parietal cells, providing a regulatory mechanism that could be targeted to manage acid-related gastric diseases.

Antimicrobial Peptides and their Pore/Ion Channel Properties in Neutralization of Pathogenic Microbes.

The essence of successful antimicrobial chemotherapy lies in selective toxicity of the agent towards the pathogen. An ideal antimicrobial agent should kill pathogens effectively with little or no effect on host cells. There is a dearth of antibiotic and antimicrobial therapies due the rapid development of microbial resistance to these agents, as evidenced by increasing incidences of hospital acquired infections. This challenge necessitates the discovery and development of novel and effective antimicrobial agents. One promising approach is Antimicrobial Peptides (AMPs), which are synthesized by a large number of organisms. The presence of AMPs throughout evolution hints at their importance. The first and foremost interaction between AMPs and target cell occurs at the membrane of the pathogen. The details about these interactions will pave way for the development of new synthetic analogues or modified analogues of existing AMPs. Mechanistic insights into adoption of different structures in presence of bacterial membranes (and with their specific targets) will enhance our understanding and knowledge about these agents and their detailed mechanism of action. AMPs interact with lipids and form lipid-AMP complexes that create AMP-lined ion channels, which in turn modulate the membrane potential. This may have an effect on various biological processes leading to arrest of cell growth or cell death. This review summarizes the ion channel formation property of AMPs as an effective approach in dealing with neutralization of pathogenic microbes.

Ca(2+)/calmodulin regulates Kvß1.1-mediated inactivation of voltage-gated K(+) channels.

A-type K(+) channels open on membrane depolarization and undergo subsequent rapid inactivation such that they are ideally suited for fine-tuning the electrical signaling in neurons and muscle cells. Channel inactivation mostly follows the so-called ball-and-chain mechanism, in which the N-terminal structures of either the K(+) channel's α or ß subunits occlude the channel pore entry facing the cytosol. Inactivation of Kv1.1 and Kv1.4 channels induced by Kvß1.1 subunits is profoundly decelerated in response to a rise in the intracellular Ca(2+) concentration, thus making the affected channel complexes negative feedback regulators to limit neuronal overexcitation. With electrophysiological and biochemical experiments we show that the Ca(2+) dependence is gained by binding of calmodulin to the "chain" segment of Kvß1.1 thereby compromising the mobility of the inactivation particle. Furthermore, inactivation regulation via Ca(2+)/calmodulin does not interfere with the ß subunit's enzymatic activity as an NADPH-dependent oxidoreductase, thus rendering the Kvß1.1 subunit a multifunctional receptor that integrates cytosolic signals to be transduced to altered electrical cellular activity.