Radiologic patterns of distant organ metastasis in advanced breast cancer patients: Prospective review of computed tomography images.

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer (BC) metastases to the abdomen and pelvis affect the liver, mesentery, retroperitoneum, peritoneum, bladder, kidney, ovary, and uterus. The study documented the radiological pattern and features of the chest, bone, abdominal and pelvic (AP) metastases among advanced BC patients. AIM: The aim is to document the radiological pattern and features of breast cancer metastasis in the chest, abdomen, pelvis and bones. MATERIALS AND RESULTS: Chest, abdominal, and pelvic computed tomography scan images of 36 patients with advanced BC were collated from Cape Coast Teaching Hospital and RAAJ Diagnostics. The images were prospectively assessed for metastasis to the organs of the chest, AP soft tissues, and bones. Radiologic features of metastasis of the lungs, liver, lymph nodes (LNs), and bones were documented. Patients' demographics, clinical data, and histopathology reports were also collected. The data were captured using UVOSYO and exported to Microsoft Excel templates. The data obtained were descriptively analyzed. Only 2.8% of BCs exhibited metaplastic BC, whereas 97.2% had invasive ductal BC. Triple-negative cases were 55.6%. Of 36 patients, 31 (86.1%), 21 (58.3%), and 14(38.8%) were diagnosed of chest, AP, and bone tissues metastasis, respectively. LN involvement was reported in 26 (72.2%) patients. Majority, 21 (58.3%) were diagnosed of multiple sites metastasis with 15 (41.7%) showing single site. Lungs (77.4%, 24/31) and liver (47.6%, 10/21) were the most affected distant organs. Most bone metastases were lytic lesions (92.9%, 13/14) with the vertebrae (85.7%, 12/14) been the most affected. CONCLUSION: According to the study, advanced BC patients have a higher-than-average radiologic incidence of lung, liver, bone, and LN metastases.

Sporadic Class II Congenital humeroradial synostosis and Left Micromelia in a three-and-a-half-months female Ghanaian infant.

Congenital humeroradial synostosis (CHRS) is a rare musculoskeletal condition that significantly affects the mobility of the elbow joint. They occur in various types and forms depending on the types and numbers of bones involved at the elbow. CHRS may present with elbow deformity and limitation of function. Appropriate timely diagnosis and counseling are required since CHRS is mostly managed conservatively according to literature and may prevent avoidable fractures of the radius from attempts by parents to straighten the flexed fixed elbow and finally offer adequate time for delayed surgical intervention which is usually ineffective and unhelpful.

Incidental ultrasound finding of cholelithiasis in an 8-week-old infant: A case report.

Infantile cholelithiasis is a rare occurrence. It is often diagnosed incidentally during ultrasonography for other conditions as most cases are asymptomatic and may be self-limiting. A few cases may however present with prolonged neonatal or infantile jaundice. We report our initial experience with an incidental case of infantile cholelithiasis in an 8-week-old male infant who was brought to our ultrasound unit in Accra, Ghana, for an abdominal ultrasound on account of conjugated hyperbilirubinemia and pigmented stools. The patient had presented initially at the children's emergency unit of the Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital, 2 days after an uneventful delivery, with a history of yellowing of the eyes, noticed on the first day of life, which necessitated the request for the ultrasound examination, leading to this rare finding of infantile cholelithiasis. The availability and use of modern sonographic equipment are likely to result in more effective detection of this incidental finding and its subsequent management.

Patient radiation dose during diagnostic and interventional cardiology procedures: A study in a tertiary hospital.

BACKGROUND: Fluoroscopy-guided diagnostic and interventional cardiology (IC) procedures help to identify and treat several problems associated with the heart. However, these procedures expose patients, cardiologists, radiographers, and nurses to radiation doses. Due to the risk that ionizing radiation poses, concerns have been raised and studies are continually being done to ensure that optimization is achieved during such procedures. This study assessed patient radiation dose during diagnostic and interventional cardiology procedures as well as right heart studies at a tertiary hospital in Ghana to formulate the facility's diagnostic reference levels (DRLs) for optimization purposes. As this study was the first of its kind in Ghana, it was a vital step towards dose optimization within the local department, as well as contributing to future DRLs in Ghana. METHODS: The study collected dose (air kerma, and kerma area product (KAP) and procedural data, and assessed any correlation between parameters such as fluoroscopy time and KAP, and between body mass index (BMI) and KAP. The DRL values were determined as the 75th percentile level for the dose distribution for the various IC procedures including percutaneous coronary interventions (PCI), coronary angiography (CA), and right heart catheterization (RHC). Data were analyzed using SPSS version 23. RESULTS: CA was the most frequently performed IC procedure (77.3%), while RHC was the least recorded (3.3%). The highest mean KAP was observed during the PCI procedure. The proposed diagnostic reference levels (DRLs) were 162.0 Gy.cm2 (PCI), 69.4 Gy.cm2 (CA), 39.8 Gy.cm2 (RHC) and 159.9 Gy.cm2 (CA+PCI). Patients who presented for the CA+PCI and RHC procedures received the highest and lowest mean KAP of 159.9 Gy.cm2 and 39.8 Gy.cm2 of radiation respectively. CONCLUSION: This study, therefore, concludes that there is a need for dose optimization of radiation exposures for IC procedures at the cardiothoracic center in Ghana.

Contrast Medium Use in Computed Tomography for Patients Presenting with Headache: 4-year Retrospective Two-Center Study in Central and Western Regions of Ghana.

Background: Contrast medium (CM) administration during computed tomography (CT) enhances the accuracy in the detection and interpretation of abnormalities. Evidence from literature also validate the essence of CM in imaging studies. CT, by virtue of its ubiquity, ease of use, speed, and lower financial footprint, is usually the first investigation in cases of headache. Through a multicenter retrospective analysis, we compared findings of contrast-enhanced CT (CECT) to noncontrast-enhanced CT (NCECT) head examinations among patients presenting with headache. Methods: A multicenter retrospective analysis of four years' CT head examination data at two radiology centers located in Central and Western Regions of Ghana were reviewed. Records of patients who presented with headache as principal complaint between January 2017 and December 2020 were reviewed. A total of 477 records of patients with headache were identified, retrieved and evaluated. A Chi-square test and Fisher exact test were used to compare the CECT and NCECT groups. Binary logistic regression analysis was computed to assess association between CECT and each CT findings. Statistical significance was considered at p < 0.05 with a 95% confidence interval. Results: A significant proportion of the patients was females (51.8% in CECT and 60% in NCECT). The NCECT group (40.06 ± 14.76 years) was relatively older than the CECT group (38.43 ± 17.64 years). There was a significant difference between the CECT and NCECT in terms of age (p=0.002) and facility CT was performed (p < 0.0001). The rate of abnormalities was higher in CECT (43.5%, 166/382) compared NCECT (37.9%, 36/95). There was no significant association between CT head findings and contrast enhancement. Conclusion: CECT examination accounted for 5.6% increase in the detection of head abnormalities. Efforts required to establish local standard operation procedures (SOPs) for contrast medium use especially in CT head examinations. Further studies to improve the knowledge of agents, mechanism of action, and safety of contrast media used among practitioners in Ghana is recommended.

Transient cortical blindness, a rare complication during cerebral digital subtraction angiography: A case report and literature review.

Transient cortical blindness (TCB) is a rare consequence of cerebral angiography with no recognized cause. TCB was observed in a patient with a wide-neck cavernous aneurysm during digital subtraction angiography. One hour after angiography, vision returned spontaneously, with no neurological damage. An MRI was performed three hours after the incident and revealed no abnormalities.

Challenges of practicing neuro-endovascular interventions in a resource-limited country; Ghana in focus.

OBJECTIVE: Now is the time to reflect on the situation of neuro-endovascular interventions (NEVT) in Africa, particularly Ghana, and to renew our commitment to provide high-quality health care to our people. This evaluation is significant because it seeks to assess progress toward our goals and identify potential obstacles for remedial action and to highlight the challenges of NEVT in Ghana. METHODS: Retrospective review of all endovascular treatments performed between January 1, 2019, and December 31, 2021, at two Ghanaian hospitals. A descriptive analysis was done having entered data in Microsoft Excel utilizing frequencies and percentages. Four experienced specialist radiologists discussed NEVT issues in Ghana. The fishbone diagram was used to depict the challenges and problems of NEVT practices in Ghana. RESULTS: From January 2019 to December 2021, 278 patients' records were analyzed at two Ghanaian hospitals. The majority of patients (71.9%) had digital subtraction angiography of the head and neck. The high cost of medical supplies, lack of vendor interest, and limited awareness of symptoms by general practitioners were noted as obstacles associated with neuro-endovascular treatment in Ghana. CONCLUSION: Although the future of NEVT is bright, Interventional Neuroradiologists and other stakeholder need to make conscious effort to improve quality, accessibility, and cost of NEVT in Ghana.

Gender and Age Differences in Cardiac Size Parameters of Ghanaian Adults: Can One Parameter Fit All? Part Two.

BACKGROUND: The cardiothoracic ratio (CTR) is a radiographic parameter commonly used in assessing the size of the heart. This study evaluated the gender and age-based differences in the average cardiothoracic ratios, and transverse cardiac diameters (TCD) of adults in Ghana. METHOD: Plain chest radiography reports of 2004 patients (without known chest related diseases) generated by two radiologists with at least 15 years' experience from July 2016 to June 2020 were retrospectively analyzed for this study. The CTR for each radiograph was calculated using the formula CTR=(TCD÷TTD)×100, where TCD and TTD represent transverse cardiac diameters and transverse thoracic diameters, respectively. Data were analyzed with the statistical package for social sciences version 23. The independent t-test and One-way Analysis of Variance tests were used in the analyses. RESULTS: A total of 2004 patients' chest x-rays were used in the analyses. The ages of the patients ranged from 20-86 years old with a mean of 39.4±14.04 years. The mean CTR for males was 46.6 ± 3.7% while that of females was 47.7±3.7%. The difference in the overall CTR among the gender groupings was statistically significant (p = 0.001). There were statistically significant differences between the gender categories among patients in the following age groups: 30-39 (p=0.046), 40-49 (p=0.001), 50-59 (p=0.001) and 60-69 (p=0.001). CONCLUSION: The study reveals there are significant gender and age-related differences in cardiac size parameters obtained from routine, frontal chest radiographs. These differences, if considered, may result in early and appropriate treatment of cardiac pathology in some age groups.

Ketamine Use in Hysterosalpingography (the Jimah Procedure): A Follow-Up of Bilateral Tubal Evaluation of 27 Infertile Women at a Teaching Hospital, Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Pain, anxiety, and distress are common in radiological investigations including hysterosalpingogram (HSG). Studies suggest that sedation allows patients to better tolerate diagnostic imaging and image-guided procedures by relieving anxiety, discomfort, and pain. This study aimed at assessing the safety and effectiveness of ketamine use in HSG and the proportion of true positive bilateral tubal blockage during HSG using the Jimah Procedure. METHODS: We performed repeated HSG workup under IV ketamine (20-40 mg/mL) sedation for 27 infertile women at the Cape Coast Teaching Hospital. The exclusion criteria included unilateral tubular blockage, acute infection of the vagina or cervix, active vaginal bleeding, glaucoma, and high blood pressure at the time of the study. Data were entered with Microsoft Excel and analyzed using SPSS version 21. RESULTS: A total of 27 patients (age range: 25-48 years) previously diagnosed of bilateral tubal blockage or spasm were enrolled for the repeat HSG procedure. The median age was 34 years (IQR: 32-37), while secondary infertility (20) (74.1%) was the commonest indication. None of the patients reported of pain or distress during or after the procedure. Two (7.4%) women vomited after HSG. Twelve patients (44.4%) had bilateral tubal blockage (true positive), while tubal patency was seen in 15 (55.6%) patients on HSG under ketamine sedation. CONCLUSION: This study found IV ketamine sedation produces profound anesthesia and analgesia and eliminates tubal spasm. We recommend that radiologists in developing countries should consider sedating patients during HSG and documenting observations and patients' feedback to help assess safety and effectiveness in local settings.

Prenatal Diagnosis of Skeletal Dysplasia and Review of the Literature.

INTRODUCTION: Obstetric ultrasonography is routinely used to screen for fetal anomalies. Thanatophoric dysplasia (TD) is one of the common though rare lethal skeletal dysplasia, detected during routine ultrasound scan. TD is caused by a mutation in FGFR3 gene. Characteristic features include shortening of limbs, macrocephaly and platyspondyly. In our local setting, it is common to miss the diagnosis in the early scans due to lack of expertise of the sonographers. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first publication from Ghana. Case Presentation. We present the case of a 33-year-old woman who was referred to the facility on account of ultrasound scan report suggestive of thanatophoric dysplasia type 1 at 34 weeks of a female baby. The diagnosis was not made despite the mother being a regular antenatal attendant, until a fifth scan done at 34 weeks reported features suggestive of thanatophoric dysplasia. The ultrasound scan features included a biparietal diameter of 37weeks, femur length-24weeks, narrowed thoracic cage with hypoplastic lungs and short ribs. The liquor volume was increased with amniotic fluid index (AFI) of 38.4 cm. The femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, ulna, and radius were shortened (micromelia). The diagnosis of thanatophoric dysplasia type 1 was confirmed on autopsy. CONCLUSION: This report was aimed to highlight the potential contribution of ultrasound scan in the diagnosis of thanatophoric dysplasia in our setting.

Chest Computed Tomography findings in patients with corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19): An initial experience in three centres in Ghana, West Africa.

BACKGROUND: Radiological examinations have a significant role in the diagnosis and management of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the disease caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. Many COVID-19 patients show typical Chest Computed Tomography (CT Scan) features which can aid in the diagnoses and triaging of such patients. This is especially so in resource-limited settings where access to molecular diagnostic techniques such as Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) is not optimal. We report chest CT findings in 28 patients diagnosed with COVID-19 in Ghana. OBJECTIVE: To document common chest CT scan findings amongst patients with COVID-19 infection in Ghana. METHOD: Chest CT scans of twenty-eight COVID-19 patients (n = 28) were retrieved and reviewed independently by two experienced radiologists and their findings documented. Two 64 and one 32 slice spiral CT scanners were used at three centres. RESULTS: Chest CT Images from 16 males (57.1.7%) and 12 females (42.9%) patients aged between 36 and 65 years with mean age of 55.9 years (SD-8.4years) were evaluated. Of these, 21 (75.0%) of them were COVID-19 patients who were undiagnosed at the time of imaging while 7 (25.0%) were known confirmed COVID-19 patients. On the chest CT scans (n = 28), 17 (66.7%) patients showed predominantly ground glass opacities while 12 (42.9%) had evidence of consolidation predominantly. In 26 (92.9%) of the patients, the opacities were bilateral and peripheral in distribution. None of these patients had pleural effusion. CONCLUSION: COVID-19 patients tend to manifest typical imaging features on chest CT scan. The most common chest imaging finding was bilateral, peripheral and predominantly basal ground glass opacities. Importantly, these findings were frequently obtained before PCR diagnosis. Chest CT scan can help in the diagnosis and triaging of suspected or confirmed COVID-19 patients in jurisdictions with limited PCR diagnostic capacity and can improve early isolation, contact tracing and treatment thus helping to reduce community spread, morbidity and mortality.

Competency in Chest Radiography Interpretation by Junior Doctors and Final Year Medical Students at a Teaching Hospital.

BACKGROUND: Chest radiography (CXR) is a widely used imaging technique for assessing various chest conditions; however, little is known on the medical doctors' and medical students' level of skills to interpret the CXRs. This study assessed the residents, medical officers, house officers, and final year medical students' competency in CXRs interpretation and how the patient's clinical history influences the interpretation. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study in the Cape Coast Teaching Hospital in the Central Region of Ghana among 99 nonradiologists, comprising 10 doctors in residency programmes, 18 medical officers, 33 house officers, and 38 final year medical students. The data collection was done with a semistructured questionnaire in two phases. In phase 1, ten CXRs were presented without patient's clinical history. Phase 2 involved the same ten CXRs presented in the same order alongside the patient's clinical history. Participants were given 3 minutes to interpret each image. Median and interquartile ranges were used to describe continuous variables, while frequencies and percentages were used to describe categorical variables. Test of significant difference and association was conducted using a Wilcoxon rank-sum test/Kruskal-Wallis test and chi-square (X 2) test, respectively. RESULTS: The average score for interpreting CXRs was 7.0 (IQR = 5-8) and 4.0 (IQR = 3-4), when CXRs were, respectively, presented with and without clinical history. No significant difference was seen in average scores regarding the levels of formal training. Without clinical history, only 40.0% of residents, 22.2% of medical officers, 24.2% of house officers, and 13.2% of medical students correctly interpreted CXRs, while more than 75% each of all categories correctly interpreted CXRs when presented with clinical history. However, all participants had difficulties in identifying CXR with pneumothorax (27.3% vs. 30.3%), pneumomediastinum or left rib fracture (8.1% vs. 33.3%), and lung collapse (37.4% vs. 37.4%) in both situations, with and without patient clinical history. CONCLUSION: The patient's clinical history was found to greatly influence doctors' competence in interpreting CXRs. We found a gap in doctors' and medical students' ability to interpret CXRs; hence, the development of this skill should be improved at all levels of medical training.

Percutaneous transhepatic biliary stent placement in the palliative management of malignant obstructive jaundice: initial experience in a tertiary center in Ghana.

INTRODUCTION: one of the mainstays of management of malignant biliary obstruction is the decompression of the biliary system and its associated obstructive symptoms. Non-surgical palliative treatment such as percutaneous transhepatic biliary stenting is desirable in many selected patients. However, this service is often not available in many resource-limited countries. We share our initial experience of percutaneous transhepatic biliary stenting for the management of malignant biliary obstruction in our first set of patients with surgically non resectable malignant biliary obstruction in Ghana. METHODS: percutaneous transhepatic biliary stenting was performed on the first 23 consecutive patients at the Korle Bu Teaching Hospital. The procedure served as the first palliation for malignant obstruction through interventional radiology. Medical records as well as serum levels of total bilirubin (TBil), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) were used to assess the efficiency of the intervention. Microsoft Excel 2010 was used to analysis the data. RESULTS: most patients had resolution of jaundice with marked improvement in liver function and resolution of the itching associated with obstructive jaundice. During the follow-up of cases, one major complication of hemoperitoneum occurred requiring laparotomy. No other major complications such as bile leakage or death occurred. Four (4) patients had sepsis, which was managed. CONCLUSION: the introduction of the intervention in Ghana has proven to valuable for palliative drainage and relief of obstructive symptoms, hence contributing to better patient management. It is relatively safe with minor complications among Ghanaians with non-resectable obstructive symptoms.

Radiographic determination of cardiomegaly using cardiothoracic ratio and transverse cardiac diameter: can one size fit all? Part one.

INTRODUCTION: The cardio-thoracic ratio (CTR) and the transverse cardiac diameter (TCD) on Plain chest radiography are the two parameters commonly used to diagnose cardiomegaly and heart disease. A CTR of greater than 50% on a PA film is abnormal and normally indicates cardiac or pericardial disease condition, whiles an increase of TCD from 1.5 to 2cm on two consecutive radiographs, taken at short interval, suggests possible cardiac pathology. The aim was to determine the suitability of using the same TCD and CTR to detect cardiomegaly for all age groups and genders respectively. METHODS: A retrospective study involved the review of 1047 radiological images of adults aged 21 to 80 years, who had plain postero-anterior chest radiographs between January 2012 and November 2013 by 3 radiologists. Data recorded included the transverse cardiac, thoracic diameter and the cardiothoracic ratios. Descriptive analyses were carried out using the Microsoft excel 2010. RESULTS: The mean age and standard deviation for the study population was 35.1 ± 12.7. The mean and standard deviations for the transverse cardiac diameter, thoracic diameter, and the cardiothoracic ratios for male participants were 13.08cm ± 1.2, 29.7cm ± 2.7 and 46.6% ± 3.9; and 12.9 cm ± 1.3, 27.1 cm ± 2.6, and 47.8% ± 4.8 for females. An increase in TCD of 1cm resulted in a CTR of greater than 50.0% in all but the males aged 21-40 years. CONCLUSION: The study found that the same TCD and CTR values are not suitable in detecting cardiomegaly for all age groups and genders.

Congenital transpositions of stomach and spleens with partial pyloric stenosis.

The occurrence of chromosomal aberrations resulting in congenital transposition of internal organs is rare. Isolated congenital stomach and spleen (multiple) transposition with partial pyloric stenosis, where the rest of the internal organs remain in their normal positions, to the best of our knowledge has not been reported before. Attention to, knowledge and records of this case should be considered vital for understanding future symptoms and occurrences and also for prevention of surgical mistakes.

Uterine fibroid characteristics and sonographic pattern among Ghanaian females undergoing pelvic ultrasound scan: a study at 3-major centres.

BACKGROUND: Uterine fibroids are the most common benign tumours affecting premenopausal women and are often associated with considerable hospitalization and morbidity. The purpose of this study was to identify the uterine fibroid characteristics and sonographic patterns of uterine fibroids among Ghanaian women undergoing abdomino-pelvic or pelvic ultrasound scan at three major diagnostic centres. The outcome is expected to help in appropriate policy formulation in women care in Ghana. METHOD: A total of two hundred and forty four (244) women were evaluated between November 2011-February 2012, using identical 2-5 MHz curvilinear probe of Philips HD3 ultrasound machines at three major diagnostic centers in Ghana, using a trans-abdominal pelvic approach. RESULTS: The range, mean and standard deviation (SD) of the patients' ages were 14-54 years, 31.89 years and ± 7.92 respectively. The majority, 57.8% of the fibroids were intramural with only 4.4% noted as sub-mucosal. Most (55.6%) of the fibroids were located in more than one part of the uterus. The most popular (55.6%) echo pattern of the various fibroid nodules was mixed echogenicity. CONCLUSION: The sonographic patterns of uterine fibroids among Ghanaian women have been assessed at three major diagnostic centres. The study shows that most Ghanaian women who have fibroids have degenerative fibroid nodules as these nodules demonstrate mixed echo patterns on ultrasound. The findings may aid in appropriate diagnosis and interventions in the country.

Factors associated with uterine fibroid in Ghanaian women undergoing pelvic scans with suspected uterine fibroid.

BACKGROUND: Uterine fibroids are the most common benign tumours affecting premenopausal women and are often associated with considerable hospitalization and morbidity. Literature shows virtually no study concerning the quantification of the main factors associated with uterine fibroids in Ghanaian women. The purpose of this study was to assess the main factors associated with uterine fibroid among Ghanaian women presenting for ultrasound. METHOD: A prospective cross-sectional study design was employed in this study. A total of two hundred and forty-four (244) women were consecutively evaluated from November 2011 to February 2012 using a 2-5 MHz curvilinear probe of Philips HD3 ultrasound machines at three centres in Accra using a trans-abdominal pelvic approach. Data was analysed with (SPSS) version 20.0 for windows, 2010; Chicago. The Pearson's Chi-square test was used to determine associations between selected demographic and gynaecological characteristics and uterine fibroid appearance. All tests were two-tailed and p-value of less than 0.05 was interpreted as significant. RESULTS: The range, mean and standard deviation (SD) of the patients' age were 14-54 years, 31.89 years and ± 7.92 respectively. Factors that associated significantly with uterine fibroid in Ghanaian women included obesity (X2 = 17.3, p-value = 0.001), participant's age range (X2 = 47.4, p-value = 0.001), parity (X2 = -10.169, p-value = 0.001), and age at last delivery (X2 = 34.579, p-value = 0.001). CONCLUSION: Uterine fibroid was mainly associated with women of older age group of the reproductive age than the younger age categories and also associated more with women with without children compared to those with more children. Moreover, it associated more with obese patients and patient with late age at last delivery.

Caustic soda ingestion in children under-5 years presenting for fluoroscopic examinations in an Academic Hospital in Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Disastrous effects and lifelong complications, ranging from respiratory and gastrointestinal burns to death can result from caustic soda ingestion. Accidental and non-accidental ingestions occur in different age groups. However, it is very troubling to find ingestion of caustic soda a very common occurrence among children below 5 years since they do not have the developmental level required to independently weigh up risks and are also under parental and societal protections. This study was therefore planned to investigate the ingestions of caustic soda by these children for purposes of proposing measures to curb the problem. METHODS: Descriptive survey was employed for this study. A 14-item, semi-structure questionnaire was purposively issued to 57 parents/guardians whose wards had ingested caustic soda. Data was analysed with SPSS V.20. RESULTS: Twenty-seven (47.4 %) children got access to the soda at storage, 1 (1.86 %) was administered accidentally by a sibling while 29 (50.9 %) ingested during soap preparation. In respect of the former, the majority got access because it was stored in soft drink and water bottles in their parents/guardians rooms or kitchen. For the later, the children got access to the left-over soda because the soap-makers failed to adhere to good storage and disposal practices. CONCLUSION: Storage of caustic soda in soft drink and water bottles in accessible places, and training of children to drink directly from bottles influence caustic soda ingestion in children under five. Non-compliance to good practices of storage and disposal of caustic soda during soap preparation increases exposure and access of children to caustic soda ingestion.