Geosmithia-Ophiostoma: a New Fungus-Fungus Association.

In Europe as in North America, elms are devastated by Dutch elm disease (DED), caused by the alien ascomycete Ophiostoma novo-ulmi. Pathogen dispersal and transmission are ensured by local species of bark beetles, which established a novel association with the fungus. Elm bark beetles also transport the Geosmithia fungi genus that is found in scolytids' galleries colonized by O. novo-ulmi. Widespread horizontal gene transfer between O. novo-ulmi and Geosmithia was recently observed. In order to define the relation between these two fungi in the DED pathosystem, O. novo-ulmi and Geosmithia species from elm, including a GFP-tagged strain, were grown in dual culture and mycelial interactions were observed by light and fluorescence microscopy. Growth and sporulation of O. novo-ulmi in the absence or presence of Geosmithia were compared. The impact of Geosmithia on DED severity was tested in vivo by co-inoculating Geosmithia and O. novo-ulmi in elms. A close and stable relation was observed between the two fungi, which may be classified as mycoparasitism by Geosmithia on O. novo-ulmi. These results prove the existence of a new component in the complex of organisms involved in DED, which might be capable of reducing the disease impact.

Correction to: Geosmithia-Ophiostoma: a New Fungus-Fungus Association.

The article Geosmithia-Ophiostoma: a New Fungus-Fungus Association, written by Alessia L. Pepori, Priscilla P. Bettini, Cecilia Comparini, Sabrina Sarrocco, Anna Bonini, Arcangela Frascella, Luisa Ghelardini, & Aniello Scala, Giovanni Vannacci, Alberto Santini.

Cerato-platanins: elicitors and effectors.

Cerato-platanins are an interesting group of small, secreted, cysteine-rich proteins that have been implicated in virulence of certain plant pathogenic fungi. The relatively recent discovery of these proteins in plant beneficial fungi like Trichoderma spp., and their positive role in induction of defense in plants against invading pathogens has raised the question as to whether these proteins are effectors or elicitor molecules. Here we present a comprehensive review on the occurrence of these conserved proteins across the fungal kingdom, their structure-function relationships, and their physiological roles in plant pathogenic and symbiotic fungi. We also discuss the usefulness of these proteins in evolving strategies for crop protection through a transgenic approach or direct application as elicitors.

Interspecific variability of class II hydrophobin GEO1 in the genus Geosmithia.

The genus Geosmithia Pitt (Ascomycota: Hypocreales) comprises cosmopolite fungi living in the galleries built by phloeophagous insects. Following the characterization in Geosmithia species 5 of the class II hydrophobin GEO1 and of the corresponding gene, the presence of the geo1 gene was investigated in 26 strains derived from different host plants and geographic locations and representing the whole phylogenetic diversity of the genus. The geo1 gene was detected in all the species tested where it maintained the general organization shown in Geosmithia species 5, comprising three exons and two introns. Size variations were found in both introns and in the first exon, the latter being due to the presence of an intragenic tandem repeat sequence corresponding to a stretch of glycine residues in the deduced proteins. At the amino acid level the deduced proteins had 44.6 % identity and no major differences in the biochemical parameters (pI, GRAVY index, hydropathy plots) were found. GEO1 release in the fungal culture medium was also assessed by turbidimetric assay and SDS-PAGE, and showed high variability between species. The phylogeny based on the geo1 sequences did not correspond to that generated from a neutral marker (ITS rDNA), suggesting that sequence similarities could be influenced by other factors than phylogenetic relatedness, such as the intimacy of the symbiosis with insect vectors. The hypothesis of a strong selection pressure on the geo1 gene was sustained by the low values (<1) of non synonymous to synonymous nucleotide substitutions ratios (Ka/Ks), which suggest that purifying selection might act on this gene. These results are compatible with either a birth-and-death evolution scenario or horizontal transfer of the gene between Geosmithia species.

Widespread horizontal transfer of the cerato-ulmin gene between Ophiostoma novo-ulmi and Geosmithia species.

Previous work had shown that a sequence homologous to the gene encoding class II hydrophobin cerato-ulmin from the fungus Ophiostoma novo-ulmi, the causal agent of Dutch Elm Disease (DED), was present in a strain of the unrelated species Geosmithia species 5 (Ascomycota: Hypocreales) isolated from Ulmus minor affected by DED. As both fungi occupy the same habitat, even if different ecological niches, the occurrence of horizontal gene transfer was proposed. In the present work we have analysed for the presence of the cerato-ulmin gene 70 Geosmithia strains representing 29 species, isolated from different host plants and geographic locations. The gene was found in 52.1 % of the strains derived from elm trees, while none of those isolated from nonelms possessed it. The expression of the gene in Geosmithia was also assessed by real time PCR in different growth conditions (liquid culture, solid culture, elm sawdust, dual culture with O. novo-ulmi), and was found to be extremely low in all conditions tested. On the basis of these results we propose that the cerato-ulmin gene is not functional in Geosmithia, but can be considered instead a marker of more extensive transfers of genetic material as shown in other fungi.

Cerato-platanin induces resistance in Arabidopsis leaves through stomatal perception, overexpression of salicylic acid- and ethylene-signalling genes and camalexin biosynthesis.

Microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) lead to the activation of the first line of plant defence. Few fungal molecules are universally qualified as MAMPs, and proteins belonging to the cerato-platanin protein (CPP) family seem to possess these features. Cerato-platanin (CP) is the name-giving protein of the CPP family and is produced by Ceratocystis platani, the causal agent of the canker stain disease of plane trees (Platanus spp.). On plane tree leaves, the biological activity of CP has been widely studied. Once applied on the leaf surface, CP acts as an elicitor of defence responses. The molecular mechanism by which CP elicits leaves is still unknown, and the protective effect of CP against virulent pathogens has not been clearly demonstrated. In the present study, we tried to address these questions in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Our results suggest that stomata rapidly sense CP since they responded to the treatment with ROS signalling and stomatal closure, and that CP triggers salicylic acid (SA)- and ethylene (ET)-signalling pathways, but not the jasmonic acid (JA)-signalling pathway, as revealed by the expression pattern of 20 marker genes. Among these, EDS1, PAD4, NPR1, GRX480, WRKY70, ACS6, ERF1a/b, COI1, MYC2, PDF1.2a and the pathogenesis-related (PR) genes 1-5. CP rapidly induced MAPK phosphorylation and induced the biosynthesis of camalexin within 12 hours following treatment. The induction of localised resistance was shown by a reduced susceptibility of the leaves to the infection with Botrytis cinerea and Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato. These results contribute to elucidate the key steps of the signalling process underlying the resistance induction in plants by CP and point out the central role played by the stomata in this process.

¹H, ¹5N, and ¹³C resonance assignment of cerato-populin, a fungal PAMP from Ceratocystis populicola.

Plant pathogenic fungi secrete several non-catalytic proteins involved in various aspects of the pathogenesis process. Amongst these, cerato-populin (Pop1) produced by Ceratocystis populicola; a protein orthologous of cerato-platanin (CP), the core member of the CP family. These two proteins interact with host and non-host plants. In plane leaves they induce synthesis of phytoalexins, disruption of intercellular and intracellular leaf tissue, cell plasmolysis, programmed cell death, over-expression of defence-related genes, H2O2 and NO production, activation of MAPK cascade and plant resistance. All these features point to CP and Pop1 as defence inducers, though Pop1 shows a reduced efficiency. Pop1/CP similarity is 73%. CD spectroscopy highlights some secondary structure differences between Pop1 and CP. Indeed, the region between the first two cysteines (C20-C57), that in CP includes the ß2-strand and it is involved in GlcNAc (N-acetyl-D-glucosamine) interaction, in Pop1 is predicted to be fully disordered.

Cerato-platanin shows expansin-like activity on cellulosic materials.

Cerato-platanin (CP) is a non-catalytic protein with a double ψß-barrel fold located in the cell wall of the phytopathogenic fungus Ceratocystis platani. CP is released during growth and induces defence-related responses in plants. CP is also the first member of the "cerato-platanin family" (CPF) (Pfam PF07249). In the CPF, the molecular mechanism of action on plants and above all the biological role in fungal life are little-known aspects. However, an expansin-like function has recently been suggested concerning CP. Expansin-like proteins have the ability to act non-hydrolytically on cellulose. In the present work, the expansin-like activity of CP and Pop1, a CP family member, was investigated. Like expansins, CP and Pop1 were able to weaken filter paper in a concentration-dependent manner and without the production of reducing sugars. A metal-dependent polysaccharide monooxygenase-like activity was excluded. The optimum of activity was pH5.0, 38 °C. CP was also able to cause fragmentation of the crystalline cellulose Avicel and the breakage and defibration of cotton fibres. However, the interaction did not involve a stable bond with the substrates and CP did not significantly enhance the hydrolytic activity of cellulase. On the other hand, CP and Pop1 bound quickly to chitin. We consider CP as a novel one-domain expansin-like protein. We propose a structural role for CP in the fungal cell wall due to the ability to bind chitin, and hypothesize a functional role in the interaction of the fungus with the plant for the weakening activity shown on cellulose.

Differential timing of defense-related responses induced by cerato-platanin and cerato-populin, two non-catalytic fungal elicitors.

The cerato-platanin (CP) family consists of fungal-secreted proteins involved in various stages of the host-fungus interaction and acting as phytotoxins and elicitors of defense responses. The founder member of this family is CP, a non-catalytic protein with a six-stranded double-ψß-barrel fold. Cerato-populin (Pop1) is an ortholog showing low sequence identity with CP. CP is secreted by Ceratocystis platani, the causal agent of the canker stain of plane. Pop1 is secreted by Ceratocystis populicola, a pathogen of poplar. CP and Pop1 have been suggested to act as PAMPs (pathogen-associated molecular patterns) because they induce phytoalexin synthesis, transcription of defense-related genes, restriction of conidia growth and cell death in various plants. Here, we treated plane leaves with CP or Pop1, and monitored defense responses to define the role of these elicitors in the plant interactions. Both CP and Pop1 were able to induce mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) phosphorylation, production of reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide, and overexpression of defense related genes. The characteristic DNA fragmentation and the cytological features indicate that CP and Pop1 induce cell death by a mechanism of programmed cell death. Therefore, CP and Pop1 can be considered as two novel, non-catalytic fungal PAMPs able to enhance primary defense. Of particular interest is the observation that CP showed faster activity compared to Pop1. The different timing in defense activation could potentially be due to the structural differences between CP and Pop1 (i.e. different hydrophobic index and different helix content) therefore constituting a starting point in unraveling their structure-function relationships.

Cerato-populin and cerato-platanin, two non-catalytic proteins from phytopathogenic fungi, interact with hydrophobic inanimate surfaces and leaves.

Based on sequence homology, several fungal Cys-rich secreted proteins have been grouped in the cerato-platanin (CP) family, which comprises at least 40 proteins involved mainly in eliciting defense-related responses. The core member of this family is cerato-platanin, a moderately hydrophobic protein with a double ψ-ß barrel fold. CP and the recently identified orthologous cerato-populin (Pop1) are involved in host-fungus interaction, and can be considered non-catalytic fungal PAMPs. CP is more active in inducing defense when in an aggregated conformation than in its native form, but little is known about other CP-orthologous proteins. Here, we cloned, expressed, and purified recombinant Pop1, which was used to characterize the protein aggregates. Our results suggest that the unfolded, self-assembled Pop1 is more active in inducing defense, and that the unfolding process can be induced by interaction with hydrophobic inanimate surfaces such as Teflon, treated mica, and gold sheets. In vivo, we found that both CP and Pop1 interact with the hydrophobic cuticle of leaves. Therefore, we propose that the interaction of these proteins with host cuticle waxes could induce unfolding and consequently trigger their PAMP-like activity.

Identification and characterization of GEO1, a new class II hydrophobin from Geosmithia spp.

In the present paper we describe a new noncatalytic protein belonging to the hydrophobin family, designated GEO1, purified from the culture filtrate of Geosmithia pallida (Ascomycota: Hypocreales), and the corresponding gene sequence. In the fungal genome, GEO1 was encoded by a single-copy gene with a 450 bp open reading frame interrupted by 2 small introns whose primary translation product was 109 amino acids long and included a 23 amino acids signal peptide. The mature protein had a molecular mass of 8111.75 Da and a theoretical pI of 4.33. The deduced amino acid sequence showed similarity to class II hydrophobins and contained 8 conserved cysteine residues, present in all hydrophobins isolated so far. Biochemical properties, such as foam-forming ability and trapezoid-like shape of a GEO1 drop, also resembled the typical features of the class II hydrophobins. Expression of the geo1 gene was assessed after 2, 4, 7, 9, and 11 days of culture and showed that the geo1 transcript appeared after 7 days and increased up to 11 days.

The expression of the cerato-platanin gene is related to hyphal growth and chlamydospores formation in Ceratocystis platani.

Cerato-platanin (CP) is a protein produced by Ceratocystis platani, the causal agent of canker stain disease of plane trees. CP is the first member of the 'cerato-platanin family', and its role as a pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP), inducing defence responses both in host and nonhost plants, is established. However, the primary role of CP and its homologues in the fungal life remains unknown. In the present work, we investigated the regulation of the cp gene during the in vitro growth of C. platani in different conditions and under the effect of potential stress factors. Fungal growth and conidiogenesis were also analysed. Results showed that cp is a single-copy gene whose expression level is strictly associated with hyphal growth and with chlamydospores formation. The analysis of a 1368 bp 5'-flanking region revealed putative motifs that could be involved in the regulation of gene expression in response to stress and developmental cues. Taking into account the localization of CP in the fungal cell wall and the recently published 3D structure of the protein, our results support a role for CP in growth and developmental processes of C. platani.

High-resolution melting analysis: a new molecular approach for the early detection of Diplodia pinea in Austrian pine.

The differentiation of Diplodia pinea from closely related species, such as Diplodia scrobiculata and Diplodia seriata, and its detection in plant tissue, represented a critical issue for a long time. Molecular screening tools have recently been developed to address this topic. In this study we applied one of the most sensitive and rapid diagnostic screening method so far developed, called High-Resolution Melting Analysis (HRMA), to detect D. pinea in Austrian pine (Pinus nigra). HRMA exploits differences in the melting behaviour of PCR products to rapidly identify DNA sequence variants without the need for cumbersome post-PCR methods. We developed a HRMA method to detect specific fungal sequences in the mitochondrial small subunit ribosome gene (mt SSU rDNA). The reliability of this technique was firstly assessed on DNA extracted from pure cultures of D. pinea and closely related species. Amplicon differences were screened by HRMA and the results confirmed by direct DNA sequencing. Subsequently, HRMA was tested on DNA from symptomatic and symptomless pine shoots, and the presence of the fungus was also confirmed by both conventional and molecular quantitative approaches. The HRMA allowed the distinction of D. pinea from closely related species, showing specific melting profiles for the each pathogen. This new molecular technique, here tested in a plant-fungus pathosystem for the first time, was very reliable in both symptomatic and symptomless shoots. HRMA is therefore a highly effective and accurate technique that permits the rapid screening of pathogens in the host.

The structure of the elicitor Cerato-platanin (CP), the first member of the CP fungal protein family, reveals a double ψß-barrel fold and carbohydrate binding.

Cerato-platanin (CP) is a secretion protein produced by the fungal pathogen Ceratocystis platani, the causal agent of the plane canker disease and the first member of the CP family. CP is considered a pathogen-associated molecular pattern because it induces various defense responses in the host, including production of phytoalexins and cell death. Although much is known about the properties of CP and related proteins as elicitors of plant defense mechanisms, its biochemical activity and host target(s) remain elusive. Here, we present the three-dimensional structure of CP. The protein, which exhibits a remarkable pH and thermal stability, has a double ψß-barrel fold quite similar to those found in expansins, endoglucanases, and the plant defense protein barwin. Interestingly, although CP lacks lytic activity against a variety of carbohydrates, it binds oligosaccharides. We identified the CP region responsible for binding as a shallow surface located at one side of the ß-barrel. Chemical shift perturbation of the protein amide protons, induced by oligo-N-acetylglucosamines of various size, showed that all the residues involved in oligosaccharide binding are conserved among the members of the CP family. Overall, the results suggest that CP might be involved in polysaccharide recognition and that the double ψß-barrel fold is widespread in distantly related organisms, where it is often involved in host-microbe interactions.

Characterization of ordered aggregates of cerato-platanin and their involvement in fungus-host interactions.

BACKGROUND: The "cerato-platanin family" consists of fungal-secreted proteins that are involved in various stages of the host-fungus interaction and act as phytotoxins, elicitors of defense responses and allergens. Cerato-platanin (CP) is a moderately hydrophobic protein secreted and localized in the cell wall of Ceratocystis platani, the causal agent of a severe disease of Platanus. These properties make CP like the hydrophobins: these are self-assembling proteins that form a surface coating which is involved in the formation of aerial hyphae and in adherence to surfaces. METHODS: CP aggregation was monitored by ThT, circular dichroism, and AFM. The eliciting activity of CP aggregates was assayed on leaves and cells. RESULTS: The CP self-assembles forming amyloid-like aggregates via a nucleated growth mechanism which is joined up with a cleavage of the N-terminus. The ovoidal shape and the lack of a clear transition toward an all-beta structure distinguish these aggregates from typical amyloid fibrils. Moreover, CP aggregates interact with hydrophobic surfaces and enhance the hypersensitive response of Platanus. CONCLUSION AND GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: CP forms "ordered aggregates" for which the soluble prefibrillar structures are the end point of the aggregation process, and do not evolve to insoluble fibrils. An involvement in host-microbe interaction is also suggested.

New proteins orthologous to cerato-platanin in various Ceratocystis species and the purification and characterization of cerato-populin from Ceratocystis populicola.

Natural variants of cerato-platanin (CP), a pathogen associated molecular pattern (PAMP) protein produced by Ceratocystis platani (the causal agent of the plane canker stain), have been found to be produced by other four species of the genus Ceratocystis, including five clones of Ceratocystis fimbriata isolated from different hosts. All these fungal strains were known to be pathogenic to plants with considerable importance in agriculture, forestry, and as ornamental plants. The putative premature proteins were deduced on the basis of the nucleotide sequence of genes orthologous to the cp gene of C. platani; the deduced premature proteins of Ceratocystis populicola and Ceratocystis variospora reduced the total identity of all the others from 87.3% to 60.3%. Cerato-populin (Pop1), the CP-orthologous protein produced by C. populicola, was purified and characterized. Pop1 was a well-structured alpha/beta protein with a different percentage of the alpha-helix than CP, and it self-assembled in vitro in ordered aggregates. Moreover, Pop1 behaved as PAMP, since it stimulated poplar leaf tissues to activate defence responses able to reduce consistently the C. populicola growth.

Isolation of the orthologue of the cerato-ulmin gene in Ophiostoma quercus and characterization of the purified protein.

Ophiostoma quercus is an ophiostomatoid fungus strictly related to the Ophiostoma's (O. ulmi, O. novo-ulmi, and O. himal-ulmi) that cause Dutch elm disease (DED). O. quercus has a number of morphological characteristics in common with the DED pathogens, and is a well-known and economically important sapstaining fungus occurring worldwide on hardwoods and commercially produced pines, and causes typical cankers on oak stems. In elm trees O. quercus can survive for months without causing any disease symptoms. DED fungi produce cerato-ulmin (CU), a class II hydrophobin, which is generally considered as the main toxin potentially involved in various phases of the DED pathogenesis. In the present work we isolated and sequenced the orthologue of the cu gene in the O. quercus isolates H988, H1042, and H2053. Moreover the CU protein from O. quercus isolate H988 was also purified and characterized. Sequence analysis showed that there is a pronounced difference between the whole cu gene region of O. quercus and the homologous fragments of the DED-causing species O. ulmi, O. novo-ulmi, and O. himal-ulmi. It also appeared that differences in the structural conformation of the promoter were unlikely to play a role in the modulation of the transcript level and that, for O. quercus, differences in CU production did not result from the potential different regulation levels. Clear differences were shown in the transcriptional unit of the cu genes and in the amino acid sequences among all the CUs. The purified O. quercus CU was separated using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization/time of flight (MALDI-TOF) spectrometry into seven forms of increasing molecular weight from 7190 to 7724Da. The hydrophobicity profiles indicated that two regions of the O. quercus CU protein were more hydrophobic than the corresponding regions of the CUs of the DED fungi. The O. quercus CUs had theoretical isoelectric point values similar to those of the DED fungi. Finally, the contradiction between the consistent differences between these four Ophiostoma species in the cu gene region and in the CU proteins and their strict phylogenetic relationship is discussed.

Cerato-platanin, a phytotoxic protein from Ceratocystis fimbriata: expression in Pichia pastoris, purification and characterization.

Cerato-platanin (CP) is a phytotoxic protein secreted by the Ascomycete Ceratocystis fimbriata f.sp. platani. This Ascomycete causes canker stain which is a severe disease with a high incidence in the European Platanus acerifolia. CP probably plays a role in the disease, eliciting defence-related responses in the host plants. CP is a 120 amino acid protein, containing 40% hydrophobic residues and two S-S bridges. In the EMBL data bank CP is the first member of a new fungal protein family known as the Cerato-Platanin Family. The N-terminal region of CP shows a high similarity with that of cerato-ulmin, a phytotoxic protein produced by the Ophiostoma species and that belongs to the hydrophobin family. Hydrophobins are hydrophobic proteins secreted by many saprophytic or pathogenic fungi and have a remarkable ability to self-assemble into a rodlet structure takes part in physiological and/or pathological processes. The methyltrophic yeast Pichia pastoris was used to obtain a high-level expression of recombinant CP (rCP) and the pPIC9 vector was chosen to bring about extra-cellular secretion of the protein. The preliminary structural and functional characterization presented here reveals no significant differences between the native and the recombinant protein. We also show that CP self-assembles in solution. The availability of rCP will allow its three-dimensional structure to be determined, facilitating an understanding of the role of CP in the pathogenesis of canker stain. It is also an excellent model for investigating the mechanism of action of the other proteins related to CP.

Cerato-platanin, the first member of a new fungal protein family: cloning, expression, and characterization.

The ascomycete Ceratocystis fimbriata, the causal agent of "canker stain disease," secretes a protein of 12.4 kDa that elicits phytoalexin synthesis and plant cell death. This protein, named cerato-platanin (CP), is also located in the cell walls of ascospores, hyphae, and conidia; it contains four cysteines (S-S bridged) and is moderately hydrophobic. The cp gene consists of a single exon and has 42 bp codifying for a signal peptide of 14 residues. The recombinant protein was obtained by cloning the cp gene of the mature protein in Escherichia coli (BL21), and a refolding step was needed to achieve the native active form. In the European Molecular Biology data bank, CP is reported as the first member of the CP family; this is the first example of an set of secreted fungal proteins whose primary structure is very similar. Nonetheless, the data also revealed some structural and functional features that make CP similar to proteins of the hydrophobin family.

Cerato-platanin protein is located in the cell walls of ascospores, conidia and hyphae of Ceratocystis fimbriata f. sp. platani.

Cerato-platanin (CP), a protein of about 12.4 kDa from Ceratocystis fimbriata f. sp. platani (Cfp), accumulated in the mycelium and was located in the cell walls of Cfp ascospores, hyphae and conidia suggesting that this protein had a role in forming the fungal cell wall apart from the already known fact that it is secreted early in culture and elicits phytoalexin synthesis and/or plant cell death. The finding was obtained with three immunological techniques: a quantitative ELISA which determines the amount of CP in the mycelium, an immunofluorescence assay, and immunogold labelling to define the exact localization of CP in the Cfp cells.