Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) subtype surveillance of African-born persons at risk for group O and group N HIV infections in the United States.

A population-based surveillance registry was used to identify human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected persons in the United States at increased risk for group O and group N infections (those born in or near African countries where group O infection has been reported). Of 155 eligible subjects, 37 gave samples. By phylogenetic and serologic analysis, 32 were infected with group M (16 with subtype A, 5 with B, 7 with C, and 1 each with subtypes D, F2, G, and recombinant A/J) and 2 with group O but none with group N virus. For 3, samples could not be typed by serology or amplified by polymerase chain reaction using group M-, O-, or N-specific primers. In the United States, group O HIV infection is uncommon; no case of group N infection was found. African-born persons may have HIV strains typical of their birth country. Ongoing subtype surveillance may allow early identification of novel or emerging HIV strains.

Identification of a human population infected with simian foamy viruses.

Studying the transmission of simian retroviruses to humans can help define the importance of these infections to public health. We identified a substantial prevalence (4/231, 1.8%) of infection with simian foamy viruses (SFV) among humans occupationally exposed to nonhuman primates. Evidence of SFV infection included seropositivity, proviral DNA detection and isolation of foamy virus. The infecting SFV originated from an African green monkey (one person) and baboons (three people). These infections have not as yet resulted in either disease or sexual transmission, and may represent benign endpoint infections.

Identification and characterization of an HIV-2 antibody-positive blood donor in the United States.

BACKGROUND: As of June 1, 1992, the Food and Drug Administration recommended that all donated blood be screened for antibodies specific to HIV-2. Despite broad serologic surveillance, only two cases of HIV-2 infection had been detected among potential blood and plasma donors since the implementation of the test. CASE REPORT: The identification of a third HIV-2 antibody-positive blood donor is reported. The first-time donor was identified by routine screening procedures as anti-HIV-1/HIV-2-reactive, and that status was confirmed by licensed HIV-1 Western blot. Concurrent whole-virus lysate enzyme immunoassay and Western blot for HIV-2 were strongly positive, but the possibility of HIV-1 cross-reactivity could not be eliminated. The donor was notified, counseled, and deferred from future donation. He subsequently enrolled in a Centers for Disease Control and Prevention-sponsored epidemiologic study of HIV-positive former donors. When it was revealed during the standardized interview that he was a native of an HIV-2-endemic region, follow-up samples were submitted to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Investigational HIV-1 and HIV-2 peptide enzyme immunoassays indicated that this infection was due to HIV-2 only. CONCLUSION: Enzyme immunoassays for antibodies to synthetic peptides of HIV-1 and HIV-2 may be useful in differentiating the two viruses in individuals with ambiguous Western blot results and risk factors for HIV-2 infection.

Update on the seroepidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus in the United States household population: NHANES III, 1988-1994.

To update the estimate of seroprevalence of HIV from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III), data from the second phase of the survey were combined with previously published data to produce a more precise estimate. The testing was performed anonymously on 11,203 individuals 18-59 years of age examined from 1988 to 1994. Fifty-nine individuals were HIV positive, for an overall prevalence of 0.32%. The number of individuals living in households with HIV infection based on this estimate was 461,000, with a 95% confidence interval of 290,000-733,000. Analysis of nonresponse demonstrated that white and black men 40-59 years of age were least likely to participate in the survey. A sensitivity analysis demonstrated that this nonresponse may have biased the NHANES III estimate downward by 190,000 persons. Data from the second phase of the survey were used to analyze the association between drug use and HIV infection. Black women who used cocaine were 12 times more likely to be HIV positive compared with all tested black women (6.5% vs. 0.55%). This survey provides an estimate of HIV prevalence for individuals who reside in households but excludes some persons who are at higher risk for HIV infection, including prisoners and the homeless not residing in shelters.

Performance characteristics of a rapid HIV antibody assay in a hospital with a high prevalence of HIV infection. CDC-Bronx-Lebanon HIV Serosurvey Team.

BACKGROUND: The delay between collection of blood samples and availability of test results may be as long as 3 weeks and is one barrier to the acceptance of voluntary testing for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Serologic tests that provide results rapidly could overcome this barrier, but the accuracy and reliability of rapid tests have not been well characterized in the United States. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate, in a "real world" setting, the performance characteristics of a rapid HIV assay that reduces the need for patients to return for counseling after the test. DESIGN: Testing of HIV antibodies by rapid and nonrapid assays and survey about risk behaviors for HIV. SETTING: A hospital in Bronx, New York, with a high prevalence of HIV-seropositive patients. PATIENTS: 837 patients who were not known to be infected with HIV, had not been admitted for conditions related to the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, and agreed to participate in HIV testing and an interview. MEASUREMENTS: Sensitivity and specificity of a rapid HIV antibody assay based on comparisons with nonrapid assay and Western blot assay. RESULTS: According to nonrapid assays, 5.4% of patients were infected with HIV. The rapid assay was highly accurate in this sample overall: its sensitivity was 1.00, its specificity was 0.991, its positive predictive value was 0.865, and its negative predictive value was 1.00. The assay was also highly accurate in various subgroups. CONCLUSIONS: Accurate, rapid tests for HIV infection may enhance testing programs by preventing the need for delayed counseling of seronegative patients and by providing preliminary results to seropositive patients. These preliminary results may encourage patients to return for confirmatory test results and to adopt risk-reducing behaviors sooner.

The emerging genetic diversity of HIV. The importance of global surveillance for diagnostics, research, and prevention.

The discovery of highly divergent strains of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) not reliably detected by a number of commonly used diagnostic tests has underscored the need for effective surveillance to track HIV variants and to direct research and prevention activities. Pathogens such as HIV that mutate extensively present significant challenges to effective monitoring of pathogens and to disease control. To date, relatively few systematic large-scale attempts have been made to characterize and sequence HIV isolates. For most of the world, including the United States, information on the distribution of HIV strains among different population groups is limited. We describe herein the implications resulting from the rapid evolution of HIV and the need for systematic surveillance integrated with laboratory science and applied research. General surveillance guidelines are provided to assist in identifying population groups for screening, in applying descriptive epidemiology and systematic sampling, and in developing and evaluating efficient laboratory testing algorithms. Timely reporting and dissemination of data is also an important element of surveillance efforts. Ultimately, the success of global surveillance network depends on collaboration and on coordination of clinical, laboratory, and epidemiologic efforts.

Serosurvey of human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus infection among hospital-based surgeons. Serosurvey Study Group.

BACKGROUND: Because occupational blood contact places health-care workers at risk for infection with bloodborne pathogens, we wanted to estimate the prevalence of infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and hepatitis C virus (HCV) among hospital-based surgeons and correlate the results with occupational and nonoccupational risk factors. STUDY DESIGN: All surgeons in training or in practice in general surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, or orthopedics at 21 hospitals in moderate to high AIDS incidence areas were eligible to participate in a voluntary, anonymous serosurvey. Serum samples were tested for HIV antibody, for HCV antibody, and for markers of HBV infection: hepatitis B surface antigen, total antibody to hepatitis B core antigen, and antibody to hepatitis B surface antigen. RESULTS: Of 2,887 eligible surgeons, 770 (27 percent) participated in the study. One of 740 surgeons not reporting nonoccupational risk factors was HIV seropositive (0.14 percent, upper limit 95 percent confidence interval [CI] equals 0.64 percent). None of 20 participants reporting nonoccupational HIV risk factors and none of ten not responding to the question on nonoccupational risk factors were HIV positive. Of 129 (17 percent) participants with past or current HBV infection, three (0.4 percent) had chronic HBV infection; all were negative for hepatitis B e antigen. Risk factors for HBV infection included not receiving hepatitis B vaccine (odds ratio [OR] 14.7, 95 percent CI 8.3 to 26.0) and practicing surgery at least ten years (OR 2.2, 95 percent CI 1.3 to 3.8). Seven (0.9 percent) participants had anti-HCV. CONCLUSIONS: Although not necessarily generalizable to all surgeons in moderate to high AIDS incidence areas, these results do not indicate a high rate of previously undetected HIV infection among surgeons who trained or practiced in these areas, or both. Hepatitis B virus posed the highest risk of infection with a bloodborne pathogen, followed by HCV and HIV.

The seroepidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus in the United States household population: NHANES III, 1988-1991.

To provide an estimate of the seroprevalence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in a representative sample of the U.S. household population, serum samples from participants in the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) were tested for HIV antibody. The testing was performed anonymously on 5,430 individuals 18-59 years old from phase 1 of NHANES III conducted from 1988 to 1991. Twenty-nine individuals were HIV positive. The total weighted prevalence was 0.39%. The population estimate of infected individuals was 547,000, with a 95% confidence interval of 299,000-1,020,000 infected persons. Black participants were four times more likely to be HIV positive than white/other individuals and three times more likely than Mexican Americans. Men were three times more likely to be infected than women. Higher nonresponse to the survey and to phlebotomy was observed in young white men; therefore these data provide a conservative estimate of HIV infection in the general household population. This estimate does not include individuals who do not live in households and who may be at higher risk of infection, such as persons in penal institutions, the homeless, or certain hospitalized patients.

Differential replication and pathogenic effects of HIV-1 and HIV-2 in Macaca nemestrina.

OBJECTIVE: HIV-1 and HIV-2 isolates representing various geographic regions and distinct viral subtypes were examined for their ability to establish both in vitro and in vivo productive infections of Macaca nemestrina (pigtail macaque) peripheral blood mononuclear cells. METHODS: Animals were inoculated with either autologous cell-associated or cell-free viral preparations of selected isolates. HIV-specific immune responsiveness, hematologic changes, genetic variation, and virus burden were monitored as delineators of HIV pathogenesis. RESULTS: HIV-2 replication in vitro and in vivo correlated with nascent antigen production and rising viral titers as determined by infectious center assays. Infection was detectable by polymerase chain reaction amplification of proviral sequences in macaque cells as early as 1 week postinoculation. Two distinct patterns of CD4+ cell depletion induced by HIV-2 infection were observed during the first month postinoculation and characterized by a moderate loss sustained through 20 weeks postinoculation or a substantial loss maintained long-term (> 90 weeks). Identity between inoculating viral stocks and subsequent viral isolates from animals was established comparatively by limited sequence analysis of specific domains within the HIV-2 pol and env genes. In contrast, replication of HIV-1 isolates was limited or only semipermissive in vitro. Intravenous inoculation of HIV-1 field isolates, using conditions successful for HIV-2 (for example, identical viral titers), failed to establish a productive viral infection leading to seroconversion of fluctuations in hematologic cell markers. Infection with a high-titer inoculum of a laboratory-adapted HIV-1 strain in vivo, as demonstrated by polymerase chain reaction analysis, produced seroconversion in the absence of overt viral replication or hematologic variations in one out of four animals. CONCLUSIONS: This system provides for multifaceted modeling of HIV pathogenesis, primarily with HIV-2 and potentially with HIV-1/-2 chimerics, in support of immunotherapeutic developments and critical evaluation of intervention practices.

Surveillance of HIV infection and zidovudine use among health care workers after occupational exposure to HIV-infected blood. The CDC Cooperative Needlestick Surveillance Group.

OBJECTIVE: To study the risk for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and the patterns of use and associated toxicity of zidovudine among health care workers after an occupational exposure to HIV. DESIGN: An ongoing, prospective surveillance project conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. PARTICIPANTS: Exposed workers voluntarily reported by 312 U.S. health care facilities from August 1983 to June 1992. RESULTS: Four of 1103 enrolled workers with percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood seroconverted (HIV seroconversion rate, 0.36%; upper limit of the 95% Cl, 0.83%); no enrolled workers with mucous membrane (n = 75) or skin (n = 67) contact seroconverted. During October 1988 to June 1992, 31% of 848 enrolled workers used zidovudine after exposure; this proportion increased from 5% during October through December 1988 to 43% during January through June 1992. Despite using zidovudine after exposure, one worker became infected with a strain of HIV that was apparently sensitive to zidovudine. Adverse symptoms, most commonly nausea, malaise or fatigue, and headache, were reported by 75% of workers using zidovudine; 31% of workers did not complete planned courses of zidovudine because of adverse events. CONCLUSIONS: The risk for HIV seroconversion after percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood is 0.36%, which is similar to previous estimates. Zidovudine is used after exposure by a sizable proportion of health care workers enrolled in the project despite frequent, minor, associated symptoms. Documented failures of postexposure zidovudine prophylaxis, including in one worker enrolled in this study, indicate that if zidovudine is protective, any protection afforded is not absolute. Postexposure zidovudine, if used, requires careful consideration of possible risks and benefits.

Sentinel surveillance for HIV-2 infection in high-risk US populations.

OBJECTIVES: We conducted sentinel surveillance in persons practicing behaviors known to transmit retroviruses to determine the US presence and extent of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (HIV-2). METHODS: Sentinel surveillance for HIV-2 was conducted by testing 31,533 anonymous blood specimens from patients at sexually transmitted disease clinics, injecting drug users at treatment centers, and clients at HIV counseling and testing sites in 14 US cities where West African immigrants often settle. Specimens were tested by HIV-1 and HIV-2 whole virus and synthetic peptide enzyme immunoassay and confirmed by HIV-1 and HIV-2 Western blots. RESULTS: Nearly 10% of 31,533 sera were positive for HIV-1. Two heterosexual Black male sexually transmitted disease patients were infected with HIV-2. One of the HIV-2 positive specimens did not cross-react on HIV-1 enzyme immunoassay screening. One client had antibodies consistent with malarial infection in West Africa; the other, who had syphilis, did not have antibodies to malaria or to any of 20 arboviruses present in Africa. CONCLUSIONS: Clinics serving clients from HIV-2 endemic areas should test persons practicing risk behaviors for both HIV-1 and HIV-2. Sentinel surveillance for HIV-2 serves as an early warning system for the possible spread of this virus in the United States.

AIDS dementia complex complicated by cytomegalovirus encephalopathy.

We have studied longitudinally ten patients with AIDS encephalopathy with respect to pathogenetic roles of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and cytomegalovirus (CMV). Three patients manifested typical AIDS dementia complex (ADC) (initially without retinitis and with slowly progressive cognitive, motor and behavioral abnormalities which were zidovudine-responsive, and relatively preserved CD4+ T cells), and seven patients presented with AIDS dementia complex complicated by CMV encephalopathy (ACE) (with CMV retinitis, peripheral neuropathy, altered sensorium, and rapidly declining clinical and immunological status). Whereas only HIV antibody was elevated in the spinal fluid of patients with ADC, both virus infections were active in the central nervous system of patients with ACE as shown by HIV p24 antigenemia and antigenrrhachia, elevated HIV and CMV antibody in the spinal fluid, disseminated CMV infection with retinitis, and basilar ventriculoencephalitis with multinucleated cytomegalic cells containing CMV and HIV proteins and CMV DNA. The recognition of ADC and ACE is important, since some patients with ACE may respond to ganciclovir or foscarnet.

Simian immunodeficiency virus needlestick accident in a laboratory worker.

The macaque monkey infected with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) is an animal model of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. We investigated a laboratory worker who was exposed by needlestick accident to blood from an SIV-infected macaque. Seroreactivity to SIV developed within 3 months of exposure, with antibody titres peaking from the third to the fifth month and declining thereafter. Polymerase chain reaction for SIV sequences and cultures of peripheral-blood mononuclear cells failed to show infection. Inoculation of an SIV-negative monkey with blood from the worker did not cause infection. Animal-care and laboratory workers should adhere strictly to recommended procedures to avoid accidental exposures when working with SIV-infected animals or specimens.

HIV infection among patients in U.S. acute care hospitals. Strategies for the counseling and testing of the hospital patients. The Hospital HIV Surveillance Group.

BACKGROUND: Routine, voluntary testing of hospital patients for the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has been proposed in order to identify those with early HIV infection in a setting where there is ready access to counseling, appropriate clinical referral, evaluation, and therapy. We studied the pattern of HIV infection among patients in 20 U.S. hospitals, in order to evaluate possible national strategies for the routine, voluntary HIV counseling and testing of hospital patients. METHODS: Blood specimens remaining after clinical use from a systematically selected sample of patients at 20 hospitals in 15 U.S. cities were tested anonymously for antibody to HIV type 1 (HIV-1). Multivariate regression was used to determine which variables best predicted HIV seroprevalence in individual hospitals. Using these data, we estimated the number of HIV-positive patients in all U.S. hospitals and considered the efficiency of routine counseling and testing in different subgroups of patients and hospitals. RESULTS: From September 1989 through October 1991, 9286 of 195,829 specimens (4.7 percent) were positive for HIV-1 in the 20 hospitals. The seroprevalence of HIV at these institutions ranged from 0.2 percent to 14.2 percent. Among HIV-positive patients, 32 percent had symptomatic HIV infection or the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) at the time of admission or evaluation. In the 20 hospitals, HIV seroprevalence was 10.4 times (95 percent confidence interval, 8.8 to 12.0) the AIDS-diagnosis rate (the annual number of patients with new diagnoses of AIDS per 1000 discharges in 1990). In a multivariate model that included 13 hospital-specific variables, only the AIDS-diagnosis rate was associated with the hospital-specific HIV-seroprevalence rate (P less than 0.001). Using these data and the AIDS-diagnosis rates for all U.S. acute care hospitals, we estimated that 225,000 HIV-positive persons were hospitalized (95 percent confidence interval, 190,000 to 260,000) in all 5558 such hospitals in 1990, including 163,000 persons presenting with conditions other than HIV or AIDS (95 percent confidence interval, 130,000 to 196,000). In 1990, in 593 U.S. hospitals with AIDS-diagnosis rates of 1.0 or more per 1000 discharges, HIV testing of patients 15 to 54 years old (3 million patients, or 12.0 percent of all patients in U.S. acute care hospitals) would have identified an estimated 68 percent of all HIV-positive patients (110,000 patients) who were admitted with conditions other than symptomatic HIV infection or AIDS. CONCLUSIONS: We estimate that about 225,000 HIV-positive persons were hospitalized in 1990, of whom only one third were admitted for symptomatic HIV infection or AIDS. Routine, voluntary HIV testing of patients 15 to 54 years old in hospitals with 1 or more patients with newly diagnosed AIDS per 1000 discharges per year could potentially have identified as many as 110,000 patients with HIV infection that was previously unrecognized.

A survey of occupational blood contact and HIV infection among orthopedic surgeons. The American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons Serosurvey Study Committee.

OBJECTIVE: To study the seroprevalence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) among orthopedic surgeons, and correlate the results with occupational and nonoccupational risk factors. Orthopedic surgeons are one of several groups of health care workers at risk for occupationally acquired HIV infection; however, few HIV seroprevalence studies in health care workers, and none in surgeons, have been performed to assist in estimating the extent of occupational risk. DESIGN: A voluntary, anonymous HIV serosurvey at an annual meeting. To assess the representativeness of participants, a mail survey of orthopedic surgeons was conducted 5 months prior to the annual meeting. SETTING: The 1991 annual meeting of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons held in Anaheim, Calif. PARTICIPANTS: United States or Canadian orthopedic surgeons in training, in practice, or retired from practice who attended the annual meeting. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Participants' HIV serostatus and reporting of occupational and nonoccupational risk factors for HIV infection. RESULTS: Of 7147 eligible orthopedists at the annual meeting, 3420 (47.9%) participated. Compared with the 10,411 orthopedic surgeons responding to the mail survey, serosurvey participants had at least as many opportunities for occupational contact with blood and with HIV-infected patients. Among participants, 87.4% reported a blood-skin contact and 39.2% reported a percutaneous blood contact in the previous month. Among 3267 participants without reported nonoccupational risk factors for HIV infection, none was positive for HIV antibody (0%; upper limit of the 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.09%); among 108 participants with reported nonoccupational HIV risk factors, two were positive for HIV antibody (1.9%; upper limit of the 95% CI = 5.7%). CONCLUSION: Although these findings may not be generalizable to all orthopedic surgeons, we found no evidence of HIV infection among serosurvey participants without nonoccupational risk factors. The high rates of self-reported blood contact underscore the importance of compliance with infection control precautions and of development of new techniques and equipment to minimize the risk of exposures to blood during surgical procedures.

Transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from a seronegative organ and tissue donor.

BACKGROUND: Since 1985, donors of organs or tissues for transplantation in the United States have been screened for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), and more than 60,000 organs and 1 million tissues have been transplanted. We describe a case of transmission of HIV-1 by transplantation of organs and tissues procured between the time the donor became infected and the appearance of antibodies. The donor was a 22-year-old man who died 32 hours after a gunshot wound; he had no known risk factors for HIV-1 infection and was seronegative. METHODS: We reviewed the processing and distribution of all the transplanted organs and tissues, reviewed the medical histories of the donor and HIV-1-infected recipients, tested stored donor lymphocytes for HIV-1 by viral culture and the polymerase chain reaction, and tested stored serum samples from four organ recipients for HIV-1 antigen and antibody. RESULTS: HIV-1 was detected in cultured lymphocytes from the donor. Of 58 tissues and organs obtained from the donor, 52 could be accounted for by the hospitals that received them. Of the 48 identified recipients, 41 were tested for HIV-1 antibody. All four recipients of organs and all three recipients of unprocessed fresh-frozen bone were infected with HIV-1. However, 34 recipients of other tissues--2 receiving corneas, 3 receiving lyophilized soft tissue, 25 receiving ethanol-treated bone, 3 receiving dura mater treated with gamma radiation, and 1 receiving marrow-evacuated, fresh-frozen bone--tested negative for HIV-1 antibody. Despite immunosuppressive chemotherapy, HIV-1 antibody appeared between 26 and 54 days after transplantation in the three organ recipients who survived more than four weeks. CONCLUSIONS: Although rare, transmission of HIV-1 by seronegative organ and tissue donors can occur. Improvements in the methods used to screen donors for HIV-1, advances in techniques of virus inactivation, prompt reporting of HIV infection in recipients, and accurate accounting of distributed allografts would help to reduce further this already exceedingly low risk.

Seroprevalence of human immunodeficiency virus type I (HIV-1) antibodies in a family-planning population.

Blind testing of 743 women who attended an inner-city hospital family-planning clinic showed 8 (1.1%) patients to have serum antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus type I (HIV-1). A retrospective chart survey did not show an association between HIV-1 antibody seropositivity and ethnicity, marital status, education, history of sexually transmitted diseases, drug and/or alcohol use, and contraceptive method. This failure to establish previously reported correlation may be a function of methods, sample size, or reflect a different population. Nonetheless, the seroprevalence the authors found shows that all patients in a family-planning clinic setting should be offered HIV-1 antibody testing.

PIP: Researchers conducted a retrospective blind study of 743 women attending the family planning clinic at Hahnemann University Hospital in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to determine HIV-1 prevalence in a family planning population. HIV-1 seroprevalence stood at 1.1% (8 patients). The researchers were confident that the population size was large enough to accurately reflect HIV-1 prevalence in a family planning population. Since around 90,000 women used family planning services in Philadelphia, they estimated that 1600 women were actually HIV-1 seropositive in Philadelphia. HIV-1 seropositive patients were older than seronegative patients, but the difference was not significant (26.9% vs. 23.6%). 57.1% of seropositive patients and 48.7% of seronegative patients used oral contraceptives. HIV-1 seropositive clients used them. None of the HIV-1 seropositive patients had a sexually transmitted disease (STD) which alters the epithelium (condyloma, herpes, and syphilis) while 4.9% for the seronegative patients had such an STD. IN fact, 66.7% of the HIV-1 seropositive patients had no STD at all compared to 50% of seronegative patients. No association existed between HIV-1 seropositivity and illicit drug abuse. In conclusion, no association was found between HIV-1 seropositivity and ethnicity, marital status, education, history of STDs, drug and/or alcohol use, and contraceptive method. The researchers suggested that the inability to establish relationships may be due to a function of methods, sample size, or a reflection of a different population. Nevertheless they believed that the family planning clinic should offer HIV testing to women.

Outcome of hepatitis B virus infection in homosexual men and its relation to prior human immunodeficiency virus infection.

To investigate the effect of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection on subsequent hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection, HIV antibody was sought in homosexual men who developed HBV infection during a hepatitis B vaccine trial. Among 134 unvaccinated HIV-1-negative men, 7% became HBV carriers, 64% had viremia, and 42% had clinical illness. Among vaccinated HIV-1-negative men, HBV infection severity decreased with number of vaccine doses administered. When adjusted for prior hepatitis B vaccination status, persons with HIV-1 infection preceding HBV infection had a significantly higher risk of developing HBV carriage, viremia, prolonged ALT elevation, and clinical illness. Among HIV-1-infected men, the risk of HBV carriage was increased in unvaccinated persons (21%) and those who failed to respond to vaccination (31%) and further increased in those who received vaccine doses at the time they developed new HBV infection (56%-80%), suggesting inactivated hepatitis B vaccine may temporarily impair the immune response to HBV infection in HIV-1-infected persons. HIV-1 infection was also associated with reduced alanine aminotransferase elevations during the first 36 months of follow-up of men who became HBV carriers.