The role of membrane components on the oleosome lubrication properties.

HYPOTHESIS: Oleosomes are natural oil droplets with a unique phospholipid/protein membrane, abundant in plant seeds, from which they can be extracted and used in emulsion-based materials, such as foods, cosmetics and pharmaceutics. The lubrication properties of such materials are essential, on one hand, due to the importance of the in-mouth creaminess for the consumed products or the importance of spreading the topical creams. Therefore, here, we will evaluate the lubrication properties of oleosomes, and how these properties are affected by the components at the oleosome membrane. EXPERIMENT: Oleosomes were extracted, and their oral lubricating properties were evaluated using tribology. To understand the influence of the oil droplet membrane composition, reconstituted oleosomes were also studied, with membranes that differed in protein/lecithin ratio. Additionally, whey protein- and lecithin-stabilised emulsions were used as reference samples. Confocal laser scattering microscopy was used to study the samples visually before and after tribological analysis. FINDINGS: Oleosomes followed a ball-bearing mechanism, which was probably related to their high physical stability due to the presence of membrane proteins. When the membrane protein concentration at the surface was reduced, the droplet stability weakened, leading to plating-out lubrication. Following our results, we elucidated the oleosome lubrication mechanism and showed their possible control by changing the membrane composition.

Role of polysaccharide structure in the rheological, physical and sensory properties of low-fat ice cream.

Polysaccharides can be used as fat replacers in ice cream, as they contribute to an increase of viscosity. However, no research has clarified the exact role of viscosity from that of the structure of the polysaccharides on the properties of ice cream. In this study, the effect of polysaccharide structure on different properties of low-fat ice cream was investigated. The polysaccharides taken into consideration varied from flexible (locust bean gum and guar gum) to rigid (xanthan gum and iota carrageenan). Relationships between rheological properties of ice cream mixes and microstructural characteristics and sensory perception of the final ice cream were established. To separate the effect of the polysaccharide structure from that of viscosity, two series of ice cream were prepared: one in which the mix viscosity of the various samples was similar (approximately 68.3 mPa· s), and one in which the serum phase viscosity was similar (approximately 15563 mPa· s). Flexible polysaccharides showed a lower degree of shear-thinning and a more liquid-like viscoelastic behavior compared with rigid polysaccharides. In addition, flexible polysaccharides led to higher overrun (47-58%) than other samples (approximately 30%), which resulted in lower hardness of the ice cream (<3.2 MPa). Rigid polysaccharides caused gelation of the serum phase, which made the ice cream more difficult to scoop. Based on the results of the sensory evaluation, flexible polysaccharides could provide higher softness and creaminess-related properties, while rigid polysaccharides resulted in higher coldness and grittiness. Therefore, polysaccharides with a flexible structure are a better choice for improving the textural and sensory properties of low-fat ice cream.

Effect of plasmin on casein hydrolysis and textural properties of rennet-induced model cheeses.

Plasmin plays an important role in casein hydrolysis during cheese ripening, which may influence the properties of the casein network and the texture of the final product. In view of this, the relation between plasmin-induced casein hydrolysis and textural changes of cheese during ripening was investigated in this study. Four batches of model cheese with different concentrations of added plasmin (0, 0.4, 0.6 and 1.0 µL/g milk) were prepared, and were stored for 12 weeks at 16 °C. During this period, plasmin activity, casein hydrolysis, textural properties and other compositional characteristics (pH, dry matter) were determined. Our results show that the addition of plasmin had significant effect on both the degree and the pattern of proteolysis. As a result, cheeses with different plasmin content showed different textural properties. With increased plasmin concentration, Young's modulus, hardness, resilience and cohesion decreased, while brittleness increased. All textural properties showed linear relations with the degree of casein hydrolysis, and logarithmic relations with the percentage of intact casein fractions. At the beginning of ripening, only slight changes in textural properties were found, although a substantial part (40-60 %) of the casein fractions was already been broken down. When ripening progressed, ongoing proteolysis significantly weakened the protein network and consequently led to noticeable textural changes. Model cheeses became softer, more brittle and less elastic. The knowledge gained from this study provide new insights in the changes of different textural parameters of model cheese. This will help to optimize the existing products and create new ones.

Lubrication behavior of ex-vivo salivary pellicle influenced by tannins, gallic acid and mannoproteins.

The objective of this study was to investigate the influence of tannins and gallic acid on the salivary lubrication behavior. Furthermore, the effects of pH and mannoproteins in combination with gallic acid on the lubrication of saliva were studied. The addition of gallic acid and tannins were found to increase friction caused by the removal of the saliva film. Tannins resulted in higher friction compared to gallic acid. Lowering pH increased friction of gallic acid mixtures with saliva, due to stronger interactions between gallic acid and saliva. The increased friction caused by gallic acid was inhibited by the addition of mannoproteins due to the hydrogen bond interactions between gallic acid and mannoproteins, thereby decreasing the complex formation between gallic acid and salivary proteins. A correlation of 0.96 was found between the hydrodynamic diameter of the aggregate and the delta friction suggesting that the formation of aggregates determined the lubrication behavior.

Effect of different molecular characteristics on the lubrication behavior of polysaccharide solutions.

Polysaccharides strongly affect the sensorial properties of foods, which is partly related to the lubrication they provide. We investigated the lubrication performance of polysaccharides with different characteristics (i.e. molecular weight, conformation, stiffness, and charge density) to identify the most relevant structural features related to lubrication ability. The effect of viscosity was excluded using isoviscous systems. Conformation resulted to be a key factor in determining lubrication. Rigid rod-like polysaccharides (xanthan) showed higher lubricating capacity and better resistance to changes in pH and ionic strength compared to semi-flexible (pectin and carboxymethyl cellulose) and flexible polysaccharide (guar gum). The friction behavior of flexible polysaccharides was highly dependent on concentration and sliding speed, for which a model including parameters of friction, concentration, and speed was developed. The concentration-dependency of the lubrication was related to the shear-thinning behavior, and possible mechanisms to explain these differences in terms of molecular properties of the polysaccharides are proposed.

Effect of fat aggregate size and percentage on the melting properties of ice cream.

In this study, we investigated the effect of fat aggregate size and percentage on fat network formation and, ultimately, on the melting properties of ice cream. To control fat destabilization degree and fat network formation, we varied fat and emulsifier content, and blended coconut oil with milk fat, obtaining three different sample series varying in: 1) fat content, 2) fat aggregate size, and 3) fat aggregate percentage. The degree of fat destabilization in terms of aggregate size and the percentage was measured by light scattering techniques. The distribution of the fat around the air cells and in the unfrozen serum phase was calculated based on the measured overrun. Overall, a similar overrun was found in the three series of ice cream. The fat percentage in the remaining phase was measured to verify how much fat and what type of fat aggregates were present in the fat network. The results show that fat destabilization degree is relatively more important than fat content in determining the melting behavior of ice cream with low overrun. Clear relations between different fat destabilization parameters and ice cream melting behavior were established, indicating that the melting behavior of ice cream is related to specific properties of the fat network. Controlling fat destabilization in the unfrozen ice cream phase may be used to alter the properties of ice cream, and could contribute as a fat reduction strategy in ice cream.

Meat Analogues: Relating Structure to Texture and Sensory Perception.

The transition from animal to plant proteins is booming, and the development of meat analogues or alternatives quickly progressing. However, the acceptance of meat analogues by consumers is still limited, mainly due to disappointing organoleptic properties of these foods. The objective of this study was to investigate possible relationships among structure, textural characteristics, consumer acceptance, and sensory evaluation of commercially available meat analogues. The microstructure and texture of 13 chicken analogue pieces and 14 analogue burgers were evaluated with confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and texture profile analysis (TPA). The moisture of the samples was related to cooking losses and release of liquid upon compression after cooking. Meat products were included as references. A sensory panel (n = 71) evaluated both flavour and texture characteristics. For the chicken analogue pieces, samples with more added fibres had a harder and chewier texture but were less cohesive. No other relations between composition and structure/texture could be found. In the sensory evaluation, lower hardness and chewiness were only seen in products with more fat. A lower sensory hardness was found to be related to the presence of small air pockets. For analogue burgers, there was no clear relation between composition and structure/texture. However, instrumentally measured hardness, chewiness, and cohesiveness correlated well with the corresponding sensory attributes, even though they could not be clearly linked to a structural feature. Next to this, fat content showed a clear correlation to perceived fattiness. CLSM images of burgers with high perceived fattiness showed large areas of fat. Therefore, the release of large fat pools from the meat was most likely responsible for the perception of this attribute. However, perceived fattiness was not related to liking, which was the case also for chicken analogue pieces. For both pieces and burgers, even if some of the measured textural attributes could be linked to the sensory profile, the textural attributes in question could not explain the liking scores. Liking was related to other aspects, such as meaty flavour and juiciness, which were not directly linked to compositional or textural features. Juiciness was not directly related to the moisture loss of the products, indicating that this attribute is rather complex and probably involves a combination of characteristics. These results show that to increase the appreciation of meat analogues by consumers, improving simple texture attributes is not sufficient. Controlling sensory attributes with complex cross-modal perception is probably more important.

Linking intermolecular interactions and rheological behaviour in capillary suspensions.

HYPOTHESIS: Capillary suspensions feature networks of particles connected by liquid bridges, which are obtained by adding a small amount of a second immiscible liquid to a suspension. It is possible to link the network formation as well as the rheological behaviour of capillary suspensions to the intermolecular interactions of their constituents. EXPERIMENTS AND SIMULATIONS: Through a combination of experimental and numerical methods, we present a novel approach, based on Hansen solubility parameters computed from Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations, to rationalize and predict the rheological behaviour of capillary suspensions. We investigated the formation of capillary suspensions for various combinations of bulk and secondary liquids mixed with hydrophilic silica particles. The predictions were confirmed experimentally by rheological analysis, interfacial tension measurements and microscopy (CLSM) imaging. FINDINGS: Numerical and experimental results show that the Hansen solubility parameters theory allows to predict the formation of capillary suspensions, whose strength exponentially decays with decreasing intermolecular interactions between the secondary liquids and the dispersed particles. High immiscibility between the bulk and secondary liquid strengthens the gel up to a critical immiscibility point, above which the strength of the gel remains mostly affected by the affinity between the secondary liquids and the dispersed particles. Furthermore, we find that hydrogen-bonding and polar interactions control the formation of capillary suspensions. This simple approach can guide the selection of adequate solvents and immiscible secondary liquids, allowing an easy formulation of new particulate-based gels.

Effect of gelatinization and swelling degree on the lubrication behavior of starch suspensions.

This research aimed to investigate the effect of starch gelatinization and swelling degree on the lubrication properties of starch aqueous suspensions. Three types of maize starch with different amylose content of 70% (HAS), 25% (NS), and <1% (WS) were used to vary the swelling capacities. The granule suspension of NS showed the highest swelling factor (SF) of 26.5, and gave the best lubrication capacity by decreasing friction by 78%. WS was only able to decrease friction by 50% due to a lower swelling capacity. The leached-out amylose increased friction of highly swollen granules (SF = 26.5) but decreased friction of stiff granules (SF = 2.5). Adding unstimulated human saliva to starch suspensions with native and limited swollen granules reduced friction and masked differences in friction coefficients among starch types. Both the salivary layer on the contact surfaces and the salivary proteins in the bulk phase played a role in determining lubrication properties.

Lubrication properties of model dairy beverages: Effect of the characteristics of protein dispersions and emulsions.

In this study we investigated the individual contribution of different ingredients to the lubrication properties of dairy-based model beverages containing whey protein (native or aggregated), micellar casein and emulsified oil in different combinations. In single-component systems, whey protein isolate (WPI) solutions showed the lowest friction coefficients of all protein samples. Whey protein aggregates (WPA, ∼247 nm, irregular morphology) led to higher friction coefficients than micellar casein isolate (MCI) with comparable size (∼207 nm, near spherical shape). When protein particles were combined, i.e. WPA and MCI, lubrication was not much affected. However, when WPI was added to either WPA or MCI, higher friction coefficients were observed compared to single-component systems. Emulsions (droplet size âˆ¼ 440 nm) provided better lubrication than the protein samples. Oil droplets stabilized by soy lecithin (SL) were more efficient at reducing friction than those stabilized by WPI. The friction coefficient of SE strongly increased in the presence of WPI. In comparison, lubrication of WE was less affected by the addition of WPI. These results show that different proteins affect the lubrication properties of emulsions stabilized with different emulsifiers in a different way. Our research also indicates that multicomponent systems are complex, and that control over the lubrication properties requires a better understanding of the contribution of individual components.

Rheological behaviour of attractive emulsions differing in droplet-droplet interaction strength.

HYPOTHESIS: We hypothesise that interaction strength between oil droplets determine the rheological properties of oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions by simultaneous formation and break-up of bonds between droplets. Using small (SAOS) and large (LAOS) amplitude oscillatory shear measurements, we aim to distinguish different classes of emulsions based on the specific microstructural evolution of the emulsions. EXPERIMENTS: Concentrated O/W emulsions differing in droplet-droplet interaction strength were obtained. Different interaction strength was obtained using different types of interactions; (a) electrostatic attraction, (b) salt bridging, or (c) crosslinking. FINDINGS: In line with our hypothesis, different rheological events in emulsions depend on the droplet-droplet interaction strength. Strong interactions lead to monotonous yielding, and droplets undergo jamming or densification to provide strain hardening and gel-like behaviour. Emulsions with weak interactions exhibit two-step yielding (SAOS) and continuous yielding in LAOS; indicating a soft-glassy material. In emulsions above maximum packing, and with weak interactions the rheology is controlled by cluster/cage breaking, and transient formation of new clusters. For medium-strength interactions, two-step yielding was reduced, and apparent stain-hardening occurred. The probability of two distinct time scales of yielding is hindered by stronger interactions and jamming. Overall, in concentrated emulsions, yielding is determined by network rupture and reformation, cluster rearrangement and -breaking, which in turn is influenced by interaction type and strength. We present a more differentiated categorisation of emulsions based on interaction strength.

Multiple phase transitions and microstructural rearrangements shape milk fat crystal networks.

HYPOTHESIS: The rheology of milk fat, which is strongly related to its functionality, reflects multiscale structural transitions in the colloidal network formed by crystallizing triacylglycerols. EXPERIMENTS: To relate rheology to structure, early stages of milk fat crystallization at 15-22 °C were studied combining different techniques; XRD and microscopy to study structural changes, NMR to quantify the different structures, and rheology to evaluate their effect on macroscopic properties. FINDINGS: Network strength increased with the synchronized formation of micro- and nanostructures. A rheological response was only obtained when these structures became visibly connected on a microscale, and internal transitional changes could be detected with rheology. On the nanoscale, transitions were linked to the formation of specific crystal polymorphs. We quantified the formation of polymorphs commonly found in milk fat (α-2 and ß1'-2) and of two less commonly obtained polymorphs: ß-2 and ß2'-2. For the first time, the formation of these polymorphs was quantified and related to the composition of fat. Besides providing insights into the complex phase behavior of milk fat, this study shows that the structural transitions involved can be characterized and quantified by combining XRD with NMR and be detected at an early stage using rheology and microscopy.

In Vivo Aroma Release and Dynamic Sensory Perception of Composite Foods.

Condiments such as spreads, dressings, or sauces are usually consumed together with carrier foods such as breads or vegetables. Dynamic interactions between condiments and carriers occur during consumption, which can influence aroma release and perception. This study investigated in vivo aroma release (PTR-MS) and dynamic sensory perception (time-intensity) of mayonnaises spiked with lemon aroma (limonene, citral). Mayonnaises were assessed without and with carrier foods (bread, potato). When different mayonnaises were consumed and assessed alone, aroma release and intensity perception were positively correlated. Interestingly, when mayonnaises were combined with carriers, aroma release and perception were no longer positively correlated. Addition of carriers increased release of limonene and citral into the nasal cavity during consumption but decreased perceived aroma intensity of condiments. The increase in aroma release induced by the carriers can be explained by differences in oral processing behaviors and by the increased surface area of mayonnaise-carrier combinations. Carrier addition is likely to modulate aroma perception of composite foods by cross-modal texture-aroma interactions. This work demonstrates that not only physicochemical characteristics of foods but also cross-modal interactions play a role in influencing flavor perception of composite foods.

Texture contrast: Ultrasonic characterization of stacked gels' deformation during compression on a biomimicking tongue.

When undergoing compression during oral processing, stacked gels display different mechanical properties that shape perceptions of texture contrasts (Santagiuliana et al., 2018). However, to date, characterizing the mechanical responses of individual gel layers has been impossible. In this study, an ultrasound (US) technique was developed, that allowed such deformation dynamics to be visualized in real time. Stacked gels were created using layers (height: 5 mm) of brittle agar and elastic gelatin in different combinations. In a series of experimental tests, different stacked gel combinations were placed on a rough, deformable artificial tongue model (ATM) made of polyvinyl alcohol; a texture analyzer was used to apply uniaxial force, and deformation was monitored by an US transducer (5 MHz) located under the ATM. From the obtained results, it was observed that the deformation of ATM surface during compression was in accordance with the force recorded by the texture analyzer, suggesting a collaborative response of different layers under compression. Moreover, US imaging revealed that differences in Young's modulus values between layers led to heterogeneous strain distributions, which were more pronounced for the agar layers. Biopolymer elasticity was also a key factor. Regardless of combination type, the gelatin layers never fractured; such was not the case for the agar layers, especially those with lower Young's modulus values. The results of this US study have thus paved the way for a better understanding of the mechanical deformation that occurs in heterogeneous foods, a phenomenon that has been difficult to examine because of the limitations of conventional techniques.

Preparation of Protein Oleogels: Effect on Structure and Functionality.

Among available structuring agents that have been used to provide solid properties to liquid oils, protein is a more recent candidate. Due to their nutritional value and high consumer acceptance, proteins are of special interest for the preparation of edible oleogels as an alternative for solid fats. Whereas the field of protein oleogelation is still rather new and just starts unfolding, several preparation methods have been demonstrated to be suitable for protein oleogel preparation. However, there is limited knowledge regarding the link between microstructural properties of the gels and macroscopic rheological properties, and the potential of such protein-based oleogels as a fat replacer in food products. In this review, we therefore provide an overview of various protein oleogel preparation methods and the resulting gel microstructures. Based on the different structures, we discuss how the rheological properties can be modified for the different types of protein oleogels. Finally, we consider the suitability of the different preparation methods regarding potential applications on industrial scale, and provide a short summary of the current state of knowledge regarding the behavior of protein oleogels as a fat replacer in food products.

Effect of particle size distribution on rheological properties of chocolate.

This study focused on the influence of the particle size distribution (PSD) of ingredients used for chocolate preparation (cocoa powder and sugar) on viscosity of model chocolates with different fat contents. Model chocolates with varying PSDs and two particle size ratios (cocoa particles : sugar of 1 : 4 and 1 : 6) were prepared by mixing highly defatted cocoa powder as a fine fraction and sugar as coarse fraction in several proportions. Samples containing spherical quartz beads were included as a reference to gain insight into the role of particle properties. Comparing chocolate samples with the same composition, but different particle size ratio, the largest difference in viscosity was found at a proportion of coarse fraction of 0.6. This shows that at this proportion of coarse particles, the highest maximum packing fraction was reached, which is in accordance with theoretical predictions. However, for the investigated chocolate samples, the lowest viscosity values were obtained at a proportion of the coarse fraction of 0.8 or 1. This could be attributed to parameters other than PSD, such as a decrease in surface area with an increasing amount of coarse particles. Also the morphology and surface properties were shown to influence viscosity. Compared to cocoa and sugar particles, spherical and smooth quartz beads led to an improved particle packing, and therefore a lower viscosity. The addition of lecithin led to a decrease in viscosity due to a decrease in particle-particle interactions, particularly for hydrophilic sugar particles. The knowledge obtained in this study provides possible approaches on how to reduce fat content of chocolates.

How addition of peach gel particles to yogurt affects oral behavior, sensory perception and liking of consumers differing in age.

Addition of particles to foods, such as fruit pieces to dairy products or vegetable pieces to soup, is a convenient approach to alter nutritional composition, appearance, perception and acceptance. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of addition of peach gel particles to yogurt on oral behavior, sensory perception and liking of consumers differing in age. One homogeneous yogurt and seven yogurts with peach gel particles were prepared. The added peach gel particles varied in size, fracture stress, or concentration. Oral behavior of n = 62 healthy Dutch, young adults (21 ± 2 years) and n = 62 healthy Dutch elderly (70 ± 5 years) participants was characterized by video recordings. Yogurts' sensory properties and liking were scored on nine-point scales. Elderly consumed yogurts with higher number of chews and longer consumption time leading to lower eating rate than young adults. Addition of particles, regardless of characteristics, increased number of chews, consumption time, and decreased eating rate up to 60% for both consumer groups, with an average decrement of 110 g/min for young and of 63 g/min for elderly consumers. With increasing peach gel hardness and concentration, the number of chews and consumption time increased while eating rate decreased. Peach gel particle size did not affect oral behavior. Sensory perception of yogurts with added peach gel particles was similar for healthy young adult and healthy elderly. Only small differences in sensory perception were observed between the young adults and elderly for flavor attributes, crumbliness, juiciness, and perceived particle size. Similarly, minor differences in liking of a few yogurts with peach pieces were observed between both consumer groups. Thus, healthy ageing seems to affect sensory perception of semi-solid foods to a limited extent only. We conclude that changes in food texture by addition of particles can be used as a strategy to steer eating rate and potentially impact food intake of young adult and elderly consumers while maintaining or enhancing food palatability. Additionally, particle characteristics can be modified to target specific consumer groups that might differ in eating capabilities.

Cracker shape modifies ad libitum snack intake of crackers with cheese dip.

Food and energy intake can be effectively lowered by changing food properties, but little is known whether modifying food shape is sufficient to influence intake. This study investigated the influence of cracker shape and cheese viscosity on ad libitum intake of cracker-cheese combinations. Forty-four participants (thirteen males, 23 (sd 3) years, BMI 21 (sd 2) kg/m2) participated in four late afternoon snack sessions (2 × 2 randomised crossover design). Iso-energetic crackers were baked into flat squares and finger-shape cylindrical sticks and combined with a cheese dip varying in viscosity. Approximately eighty crackers and 500 g cheese dip were served in separate large bowls. Participants consumed crackers with cheese dip ad libitum while watching a movie of 30 min. Dipping behaviour and oral processing behaviour were measured simultaneously by hidden balances under the cheese bowls and video recordings. Cracker intake (28 (sem 1) crackers) of cracker-cheese combinations was not influenced by cracker shape. Cheese intake of cracker-cheese combinations was 15 % higher for flat-squared than finger-shape crackers (131 kJ, P = 0·016), as a larger amount of cheese was scooped with flat-squared crackers (2·9 (sem 0·2) v. 2·3 (sem 0·1) g cheese per dip, P < 0·001) and showed higher eating rate and energy intake rate (P < 0·001). Eating rate over snacking time decreased by reducing bite frequency (P < 0·001) while cheese dip size remained fairly constant (P = 0·12). Larger energy intake from condiments was facilitated by increased cracker surface, and this did not trigger earlier satiation. Changing food carrier surface may be a promising approach to moderate energy intake of often high energy dense condiments, sauces and toppings.

Sauce it up: influence of condiment properties on oral processing behavior, bolus formation and sensory perception of solid foods.

Condiments are rarely consumed on their own. Although addition of condiments to carrier foods is known to affect oral processing behavior and sensory perception, an understanding of how different condiment properties impact oral processing behavior and sensory perception of solid carrier foods is lacking. This study aimed to understand the role of condiments varying in composition and/or rheological properties in bolus formation facilitation, and how they influence oral processing behavior and sensory perception of solid carrier foods. Two carriers (bread, cooked potato) were combined with mayonnaises differing in fat content and viscosity. Addition of mayonnaises changed bolus properties of solid carrier foods considerably (i.e. decreased bread firmness, increased potato cohesiveness, increased lubrication of both bread and potato bolus) and, consequently, facilitated faster bolus formation. While addition of mayonnaises to bread and potatoes decreased the number of chewing cycles before swallowing, consumers did not change muscle activities or jaw movements per chew. No effect of mayonnaise fat content on oral processing behavior of composite foods was observed. Low viscosity mayonnaise resulted in faster bolus formation and swallowing compared to high viscosity mayonnaise. Low viscosity mayonnaise penetrated faster into bread boli leading to faster softening of bread boli. Also in the case of potato, low viscosity mayonnaise lead to faster bolus formation than for high viscosity mayonnaise. The low viscosity mayonnaise mixed more easily with potato bolus pieces, enhancing adhesion between pieces. Both mayonnaise fat content and viscosity influenced sensory perception of composite foods considerably, especially in terms of fattiness and creaminess. We conclude that oral processing behavior, bolus formation and sensory perception of solid carrier foods can be modified considerably by condiments. While composition and rheological properties of condiments have a large effect on bolus formation and sensory perception of solid carrier foods, these aspects have a limited effect on oral processing behavior of composite foods. Oral processing behavior is dominated by the properties of the solid carrier food. Tailoring condiment-carrier combinations could be an effective strategy to increase healthy eating, alter food intake for populations such as the elderly, and increase food appreciation.