Investing in school systems: conceptualising returns on investment across the health, education and social protection sectors.

Public policies often aim to improve welfare, economic injustice and reduce inequality, particularly in the social protection, labour, health and education sectors. While these policies frequently operate in silos, the education sphere can operate as a cross-sectoral link. Schools represent a unique locus, with globally hundreds of millions of children attending class every day. A high-profile policy example is school feeding, with over 400 million students worldwide receiving meals in schools. The benefits of harmonising interventions across sectors with a common delivery platform include economies of scale. Moreover, economic evaluation frameworks commonly used to assess policies rarely account for impact across sectors besides their primary intent. For example, school meals are often evaluated for their impact on nutrition, but they also have educational benefits, including increasing attendance and learning and incorporating smallholder farmers into corporate value chains. To address these gaps, we propose the introduction of a comprehensive value-for-money framework for investments toward school systems that acknowledges the return to a common delivery platform-schools-and the multisectoral returns (eg, education, health and nutrition, labour, social protection) emerging from the rollout of school-based programmes. Directly building on benefit-cost analysis methods, this framework could help identify interventions that yield the highest gains in human capital per budget expenditure, with direct implications for finance ministries. Given the detrimental impact of COVID-19 on schoolchildren and human capital, it is urgent to build back stronger and more sustainable welfare systems.

A positive consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic: how the counterfactual experience of school closures is accelerating a multisectoral response to the treatment of neglected tropical diseases.

Global access to deworming treatment is one of the public health success stories of low-income countries in the twenty-first century. Parasitic worm infections are among the most ubiquitous chronic infections of humans, and early success with mass treatment programmes for these infections was the key catalyst for the neglected tropical disease (NTD) agenda. Since the launch of the 'London Declaration' in 2012, school-based deworming programmes have become the world's largest public health interventions. WHO estimates that by 2020, some 3.3 billion school-based drug treatments had been delivered. The success of this approach was brought to a dramatic halt in April 2020 when schools were closed worldwide in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. These closures immediately excluded 1.5 billion children not only from access to education but also from all school-based health services, including deworming. WHO Pulse surveys in 2021 identified NTD treatment as among the most negatively affected health interventions worldwide, second only to mental health interventions. In reaction, governments created a global Coalition with the twin aims of reopening schools and of rebuilding more resilient school-based health systems. Today, some 86 countries, comprising more than half the world's population, are delivering on this response, and school-based coverage of some key school-based programmes exceeds those from January 2020. This paper explores how science, and a combination of new policy and epidemiological perspectives that began in the 1980s, led to the exceptional growth in school-based NTD programmes after 2012, and are again driving new momentum in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. This article is part of the theme issue 'Challenges and opportunities in the fight against neglected tropical diseases: a decade from the London Declaration on NTDs'.

Priority Indicators for Adolescent Health Measurement - Recommendations From the Global Action for Measurement of Adolescent Health (GAMA) Advisory Group.

PURPOSE: This article describes the selection of priority indicators for adolescent (10-19 years) health measurement proposed by the Global Action for Measurement of Adolescent health advisory group and partners, building on previous work identifying 33 core measurement areas and mapping 413 indicators across these areas. METHODS: The indicator selection process considered inputs from a broad range of stakeholders through a structured four-step approach: (1) definition of selection criteria and indicator scoring; (2) development of a draft list of indicators with metadata; (3) collection of public feedback through a survey; and (4) review of the feedback and finalization of the indicator list. As a part of the process, measurement gaps were also identified. RESULTS: Fifty-two priority indicators were identified, including 36 core indicators considered to be most important for measuring the health of all adolescents, one alternative indicator for settings where measuring the core indicator is not feasible, and 15 additional indicators for settings where further detail on a topic would add value. Of these indicators, 17 (33%) measure health behaviors and risks, 16 (31%) health outcomes and conditions, eight (15%) health determinants, five (10%) systems performance and interventions, four (8%) policies, programmes, laws, and two (4%) subjective well-being. DISCUSSION: A consensus list of priority indicators with metadata covering the most important health issues for adolescents was developed with structured inputs from a broad range of stakeholders. This list will now be pilot tested to assess the feasibility of indicator data collection to inform global, regional, national, and sub-national monitoring.

Thriving or surviving? A critical examination of funding models for fellowship council fellowships.

BACKGROUND: Since 1997, the Fellowship Council (FC) has evolved into a robust organization responsible for the advanced training of nearly half of the US residency graduates entering general surgery practice. While FC fellowships are competitive (55% match rate) and offer outstanding educational experiences, funding is arguably vulnerable. This study aimed to investigate the current funding models of FC fellowships. METHODS: Under an IRB-approved protocol, an electronic survey was administered to 167 FC programs with subsequent phone interviews to collect data on total cost and funding sources. De-identified data were also obtained via 2020-2021 Foundation for Surgical Fellowships (FSF) grant applications. Means and ranges are reported. RESULTS: Data were obtained from 59 programs (35% response rate) via the FC survey and 116 programs via FSF applications; the average cost to train one fellow per year was $107,957 and $110,816, respectively. Most programs utilized departmental and grants funds. Additionally, 36% (FC data) to 39% (FSF data) of programs indicated billing for their fellow, generating on average $74,824 ($15,000-200,000) and $33,281 ($11,500-66,259), respectively. FC data documented that 14% of programs generated net positive revenue, whereas FSF data documented that all programs were budget-neutral. CONCLUSION: Both data sets yielded similar overall results, supporting the accuracy of our findings. Expenses varied widely, which may, in part, be due to regional cost differences. Most programs relied on multiple funding sources. A minority were able to generate a positive revenue stream. Although fewer than half of programs billed for their fellow, this source accounted for substantial revenue. Institutional support and external grant funding have continued to be important sources for the majority of programs as well. Given the value of these fellowships and inherent vulnerabilities associated with graduate medical education funding, alternative grant funding models and standardization of annual financial reporting are encouraged.

Considerations for Monitoring School Health and Nutrition Programs.

School health and nutrition (SHN) interventions are among the most ubiquitous public health investments and comprise a key mechanism for reaching populations that are otherwise difficult to reach through the health system. Despite the critical role of monitoring these multisectoral programs to enable data-informed adaptive programming, information to guide program implementers is scant. This manuscript provides an overview of how monitoring indicators can be selected across a SHN program's logical framework, with specific examples across five SHN implementation models. Adaptation of SHN programs in times of school closures, such as those currently being experienced globally due to the emergence of COVID-19, is also addressed. Key aspects of SHN program monitoring are explored, including: (1) why monitor; (2) what to measure; (3) how to measure; and (4) who measures. In situations of school closures, strategies to shift both program activities and corresponding monitoring mechanisms are critical to understanding the rapidly evolving situation and subsequently guiding policy actions to protect vulnerable populations.

SAGES masters program: determining the seminal articles for each pathway.

BACKGROUND: The Society of American Gastrointestinal and Endoscopic Surgeons (SAGES) has recently developed and announced its Masters Program that aims to address existing needs of practicing surgeons for lifelong learning and consists of eight clinical pathways each containing three anchoring procedures. The objective of this study was to select the seminal articles for each anchoring procedure of these pathways using a systematic methodology. METHODS: A systematic literature search of Web of Science was conducted for the most cited articles for each of the anchoring procedures of the SAGES Masters pathways. The most relevant identified articles were then reviewed by expert members of the relevant SAGES pathway committees and task forces and the seminal articles chosen for each anchoring procedure using expert consensus. RESULTS: 578 highly cited articles were identified by the original search of the literature and the seminal articles were selected for each anchoring procedure after expert review and consensus. Articles address procedural outcomes, disease pathophysiology, and surgical technique and are presented in this paper. CONCLUSIONS: We have identified seminal articles for each anchoring procedure of the SAGES Masters program pathways using a systematic methodology. These articles provide surgeon participants of this program with a great resource to improve their procedure-specific knowledge and may further benefit the larger surgical community by focusing its attention to must-read impactful work that may inform best practices.

Video-based assessment for laparoscopic fundoplication: initial development of a robust tool for operative performance assessment.

INTRODUCTION: While better technical performance correlates with improved outcomes, there is a lack of procedure-specific tools to perform video-based assessment (VBA). SAGES is developing a series of VBA tools with enough validity evidence to allow reliable measurement of surgeon competence. A task force was established to develop a VBA tool for laparoscopic fundoplication using an evidence-based process that can be replicated for additional procedures. The first step in this process was to seek content validity evidence. METHODS: Forty-two subject matter experts (SME) in laparoscopic fundoplication were interviewed to obtain consensus on procedural steps, identify potential variations in technique, and to generate an inventory of required skills and common errors. The results of these interviews were used to inform creation of a task inventory questionnaire (TIQ) that was delivered to a larger SME group (n = 188) to quantify the criticality and difficulty of the procedural steps, the impact of potential errors associated with each step, the technical skills required to complete the procedure, and the likelihood that future techniques or technologies may change the presence or importance of any of these factors. Results of the TIQ were used to generate a list of steps, skills, and errors with strong validity evidence. RESULTS: Initial SMEs interviewed included fellowship program directors (45%), recent fellows (24%), international surgeons (19%), and highly experienced super SMEs with quality outcomes data (12%). Qualitative analysis of interview data identified 6 main procedural steps (visualization, hiatal dissection, fundus mobilization, esophageal mobilization, hiatal repair, and wrap creation) each with 2-5 sub steps. Additionally, the TIQ identified 5-10 potential errors for each step and 11 key technical skills required to perform the procedure. Based on the TIQ, the mean criticality and difficulty scores for the 11/21 sub steps included in the final scoring rubric is 4.66/5 (5 = absolutely essential for patient outcomes) and 3.53/5 (5 = difficulty level requires significant experience and use of alternative strategies to accomplish consistently), respectively. The mean criticality and frequency scores for the 9/11 technical skills included is 4.51/5 and 4.51/5 (5 = constantly used ≥ 80% of the time), respectively. The mean impact score of the 42/47 errors incorporated into the final rubric is 3.85/5 (5 = significant error that is unrecoverable, or even if recovered, likely to have a negative impact on patient outcome). CONCLUSIONS: A rigorous, multi-method process has documented the content validity evidence for the SAGES video-based assessment tool for laparoscopic fundoplication. Work is ongoing to pilot the assessment tool on recorded fundoplication procedures to establish reliability and further validity evidence.

SAGES Advanced GI/MIS fellowship redesign: pilot results and adoption of new standards.

INTRODUCTION: SAGES is responsible for defining educational content for Advanced GI/MIS fellowships administered through the fellowship council (FC). In Fall 2016, to better define core content contained in these fellowships, SAGES proposed new case log criteria including minimum volumes within six defined categories. To test feasibility of these criteria, SAGES conducted a pilot study during the 2017-2018 academic year. METHODS: Advanced GI/MIS fellowship programs directors (PD's) who also held leadership roles in SAGES were invited to participate in the pilot. Fourteen programs including 17 fellows volunteered. To assess generalizability, 2016-2017 case log data for the volunteered pilot programs were compared to all other advanced GI/MIS programs (n = 92). To assess feasibility of the new criteria, pilot programs' 2017-2018 case logs were compared to 3 years of historical fellows' case logs (n = 326). Fisher's exact test was used for comparisons with p < 0.05 considered significant. RESULTS: Complete data were available for 16 pilot fellows (median 251.5 advanced MIS cases and 62.5 endoscopies per fellow). According to 2016-2017 data, pilot programs were not statistically different from non-pilot programs regarding achievement of any defined category minimum. Compared to historical controls, the 2017-2018 pilot fellows were significantly more likely to meet the defined category minimum for foregut cases and demonstrated a non-significant trend toward higher achievement of minimums for bariatrics, inguinal hernia, ventral hernia, and endoscopy. Pilot fellows were significantly less likely to meet the minimum for HPB/solid organ/colorectal/thoracic cases. Based on these data, SAGES eliminated the HPB/solid organ/colon/thoracic category and, in partnership with the FC, approved staged implementation of the remaining criteria over 3 years. CONCLUSIONS: The pilot study provided feasibility and generalizability evidence that allowed inclusion of appropriate defined categories for establishment of the new Advance GI/MIS fellowship criteria. We anticipate that the revised criteria will enhance the educational benefit of these fellowships.

Health, financial, and education gains of investing in preventive chemotherapy for schistosomiasis, soil-transmitted helminthiases, and lymphatic filariasis in Madagascar: A modeling study.

BACKGROUND: Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) account for a large disease burden in sub-Saharan Africa. While the general cost-effectiveness of NTD interventions to improve health outcomes has been assessed, few studies have also accounted for the financial and education gains of investing in NTD control. METHODS: We built on extended cost-effectiveness analysis (ECEA) methods to assess the health gains (e.g. infections, disability-adjusted life years or DALYs averted), household financial gains (out-of-pocket expenditures averted), and education gains (cases of school absenteeism averted) for five NTD interventions that the government of Madagascar aims to roll out nationally. The five NTDs considered were schistosomiasis, lymphatic filariasis, and three soil-transmitted helminthiases (Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, and hookworm infections). RESULTS: The estimated incremental cost-effectiveness for the roll-out of preventive chemotherapy for all NTDs jointly was USD125 per DALY averted (95% uncertainty range: 65-231), and its benefit-cost ratio could vary between 5 and 31. Our analysis estimated that, per dollar spent, schistosomiasis preventive chemotherapy, in particular, could avert a large number of infections (176,000 infections averted per $100,000 spent), DALYs (2,000 averted per $100,000 spent), and cases of school absenteeism (27,000 school years gained per $100,000 spent). CONCLUSION: This analysis incorporates financial and education gains into the economic evaluation of health interventions, and therefore provides information about the efficiency of attainment of three Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Our findings reveal how the national scale-up of NTD control in Madagascar can help address health (SDG3), economic (SDG1), and education (SDG4) goals. This study further highlights the potentially large societal benefits of investing in NTD control in low-resource settings.

Investment in child and adolescent health and development: key messages from Disease Control Priorities, 3rd Edition.

The realisation of human potential for development requires age-specific investment throughout the 8000 days of childhood and adolescence. Focus on the first 1000 days is an essential but insufficient investment. Intervention is also required in three later phases: the middle childhood growth and consolidation phase (5-9 years), when infection and malnutrition constrain growth, and mortality is higher than previously recognised; the adolescent growth spurt (10-14 years), when substantial changes place commensurate demands on good diet and health; and the adolescent phase of growth and consolidation (15-19 years), when new responses are needed to support brain maturation, intense social engagement, and emotional control. Two cost-efficient packages, one delivered through schools and one focusing on later adolescence, would provide phase-specific support across the life cycle, securing the gains of investment in the first 1000 days, enabling substantial catch-up from early growth failure, and leveraging improved learning from concomitant education investments.

SAGES University MASTERS Program: a structured curriculum for deliberate, lifelong learning.

BACKGROUND: Postgraduate training has been haphazard to date. Surgeons have relied on attendance to annual meetings and multiple choice study guides to demonstrate maintenance of certification and continuing medical education. METHODS: SAGES held a retreat to develop the concept and scope of the Masters Program. Surveys were sent to SAGES members to guide curriculum development and selection of anchoring operations. RESULTS: SAGES has developed an educational curriculum across eight domains (Acute Care, Biliary, Bariatric, Colorectal, Hernia, Foregut, Flex Endoscopy, and Robotic Surgery) incorporating SAGES educational materials and guidelines, social media, coaching and mentoring. CONCLUSIONS: Deliberate, lifelong learning should be a better way to teach and learn.

Primary care physician preferences regarding spiritual behavior in medical practice.

BACKGROUND: Knowledge of physician attitudes and preferences regarding religion and spirituality in the medical encounter is limited by the nonspecific questions asked in previous studies and by the omission of specialties other than family practice. This study was designed to determine the willingness of internists and family physicians to be involved with varying degrees of spiritual behaviors in varied clinical settings. METHODS: The study was a multicenter, cross-sectional, nonrandomized design recruiting physicians from 6 teaching hospitals with sites in North Carolina, Vermont, and Florida. A self-administered survey was used to explore physicians' willingness to address religion and spirituality in the medical encounter. Data were gathered on the physicians' religiosity and spirituality and sociodemographic characteristics. RESULTS: Four hundred seventy-six physicians responded, for a response rate of 62.0%. While 84.5% of physicians thought they should be aware of patients' spirituality, most would not ask about spiritual issues unless a patient were dying. Fewer than one third of physicians would pray with patients even if they were dying. This number increased to 77.1% if a patient requested physician prayer. Family practitioners were more likely to take a spiritual history than general internists. CONCLUSIONS: Most primary care physicians surveyed would not initiate any involvement with patients' spirituality in the medical encounter except for the clinical setting of dying. If a patient requests involvement, however, most physicians express a willingness to comply, even if the request involves prayer.

Micro-MRI at 11.7 T of a murine brain tumor model using delayed contrast enhancement.

In vivo imaging methodologies allow for serial measurement of tumor size, circumventing the need for sacrificing mice at given time points. In orthotopically transplanted murine models of brain tumors, cross-section micro-MRI allows for visualization and measurement of the physically inaccessible tumors. To allow for long resident times of a contrast agent in the tumor, intraperitoneal administration was used as a route of injection for contrast-enhanced micro-MRI, and a simple method for relative tumor volume measurements was examined. A strategy for visualizing the variability of the delayed tumor enhancement was developed. These strategies were applied to monitor the growth of brain tumors xenotransplanted into nude mice and either treated with the antiangiogenic peptide EMD 121974 or an inactive control peptide. Each mouse was used as its own control. Serial imaging was done weekly, beginning at Day 7 after tumor cell implantation and continued for 7 weeks. Images obtained were reconstructed on the MRI instrument. The image files were transferred off line to be postprocessed to assess tumor growth (volume) and variability in enhancement (three-dimensional [3-D] intensity models). In a small study, tumor growth and response to treatment were followed using this methodology and the high-resolution images displayed in 3-D allowed for straightforward qualitative assessment of variable enhancement related to vascular factors and tumor age.

Patient preference for physician discussion and practice of spirituality.

OBJECTIVE: To determine patient preferences for addressing religion and spirituality in the medical encounter. DESIGN: Multicenter survey verbally administered by trained research assistants. Survey items included questions on demographics, health status, health care utilization, functional status, spiritual well-being, and patient preference for religious/spiritual involvement in their own medical encounters and in hypothetical medical situations. SETTING: Primary care clinics of 6 academic medical centers in 3 states (NC, Fla, Vt). PATIENTS/PARTICIPANTS: Patients 18 years of age and older who were systematically selected from the waiting rooms of their primary care physicians. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Four hundred fifty-six patients participated in the study. One third of patients wanted to be asked about their religious beliefs during a routine office visit. Two thirds felt that physicians should be aware of their religious or spiritual beliefs. Patient agreement with physician spiritual interaction increased strongly with the severity of the illness setting, with 19% patient agreement with physician prayer in a routine office visit, 29% agreement in a hospitalized setting, and 50% agreement in a near-death scenario (P <.001). Patient interest in religious or spiritual interaction decreased when the intensity of the interaction moved from a simple discussion of spiritual issues (33% agree) to physician silent prayer (28% agree) to physician prayer with a patient (19% agree; P <.001). Ten percent of patients were willing to give up time spent on medical issues in an office visit setting to discuss religious/spiritual issues with their physician. After controlling for age, gender, marital status, education, spirituality score, and health care utilization, African-American subjects were more likely to accept this time trade-off (odds ratio, 4.9; confidence interval, 2.1 to 11.7). CONCLUSION: Physicians should be aware that a substantial minority of patients desire spiritual interaction in routine office visits. When asked about specific prayer behaviors across a range of clinical scenarios, patient desire for spiritual interaction increased with increasing severity of illness setting and decreased when referring to more-intense spiritual interactions. For most patients, the routine office visit may not be the optimal setting for a physician-patient spiritual dialog.

Late recovery following spinal cord injury. Case report and review of the literature.

The authors of this prospective, single-case study evaluated the potential for functional recovery from chronic spinal cord injury (SCI). The patient was motor complete with minimal and transient sensory perception in the left hemibody. His condition was classified as C-2 American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) Grade A and he had experienced no substantial recovery in the first 5 years after traumatic SCI. Clinical experience and evidence from the scientific literature suggest that further recovery would not take place. When the study began in 1999, the patient was tetraplegic and unable to breathe without assisted ventilation; his condition classification persisted as C-2 ASIA Grade A. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed severe injury at the C-2 level that had left a central fluid-filled cyst surrounded by a narrow donutlike rim of white matter. Five years after the injury a program known as "activity-based recovery" was instituted. The hypothesis was that patterned neural activity might stimulate the central nervous system to become more functional, as it does during development. Over a 3-year period (5-8 years after injury), the patient's condition improved from ASIA Grade A to ASIA Grade C, an improvement of two ASIA grades. Motor scores improved from 0/100 to 20/100, and sensory scores rose from 5-7/112 to 58-77/112. Using electromyography, the authors documented voluntary control over important muscle groups, including the right hemidiaphragm (C3-5), extensor carpi radialis (C-6), and vastus medialis (L2-4). Reversal of osteoporosis and an increase in muscle mass was associated with this recovery. Moreover, spasticity decreased, the incidence of medical complications fell dramatically, and the incidence of infections and use of antibiotic medications was reduced by over 90%. These improvements occurred despite the fact that less than 25 mm2 of tissue (approximately 25%) of the outer cord (presumably white matter) had survived at the injury level. The primary novelty of this report is the demonstration that substantial recovery of function (two ASIA grades) is possible in a patient with severe C-2 ASIA Grade A injury, long after the initial SCI. Less severely injured (lower injury level, clinically incomplete lesions) individuals might achieve even more meaningful recovery. The role of patterned neural activity in regeneration and recovery of function after SCI therefore appears a fruitful area for future investigation.