Youth Pitcher Fatigue: Medial Elbow Laxity, Ultrasonographic Assessment of Flexor-Pronator Mass Energy Depletion, and Association With Pitch Count.

Background: Ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) injuries in youth pitchers continue to be concerning despite the institution of pitch count limits. Flexor-pronator mass fatigue can lead to diminished dynamic stability, resulting in greater stress on the UCL. Purpose/Hypothesis: To evaluate fatigue of the flexor-pronator mass by assessing changes in medial elbow laxity; noninvasively characterizing alterations in muscle glycogen; and identifying changes in subjective fatigue, strength, range of motion (ROM), pitching velocity, and accuracy with increasing pitches thrown by youth pitchers to their recommended 75-pitch count limit. It was hypothesized that, with increased pitches, medial elbow laxity would increase and that the glycogen content of the flexor-pronator mass would decrease. Study Design: Descriptive laboratory study. Methods: Healthy male pitchers aged 10 years (n = 22) threw 3 sets of 25 pitches with 12 minutes between sets (3 timepoints). Bilateral ulnohumeral joint gapping was measured by applying a standardized valgus force and utilizing ultrasound imaging. Relative changes in muscle glycogen in the bilateral flexor carpi radialis (FCR), and the flexor digitorum superficialis/flexor carpi ulnaris (FDS/FCU) muscles were measured with ultrasound software and recorded as fuel percentiles. Additional measures obtained included subjective fatigue, strength, ROM, velocity, and accuracy. Results: There were no differences in medial elbow joint-line gapping between the throwing and nonthrowing arms or between timepoints. The throwing arm demonstrated a significant decline in fuel percentile of the FCR from baseline to after 75 pitches (P = .05). There were no differences across timepoints for FDS/FCU fuel percentile values. Fatigue measurements for both arms were significantly higher at all timepoints compared with baseline (P≤ .03). Grip strength of the dominant arm after 75 pitches was decreased significantly compared with after 25 pitches (P = .02). Conclusion: Although an increase in medial elbow joint gapping was not demonstrated within the recommended 75 pitch count limit in 10-year-olds, a relative decrease in glycogen stores of the flexor-pronator mass did occur, as well as a decrease in grip strength, with increasing subjective fatigue. Clinical Relevance: This study provides a foundation for further objective testing of physiologic changes that occur with pitching to better guide pitch count limits and improve the safety of young athletes.

Rehabilitation of the painful elbow.

Although lateral elbow pain and medial ulnar collateral ligament injury are common musculoskeletal pathologies in overhead athletes, the evidence supporting specific interventions for managing these conditions is scarce. Management of these conditions has been guided mostly by expert opinion rather than empirical evidence, yet the lack of comparative data in the literature has not negatively affected return-to-play rates following surgery. However, an understanding of what is known regarding unimodal and multimodal treatments for lateral elbow pain and medial ulnar collateral ligament injury is needed for clinicians to select evidence-based treatment pathways and highlight what is not known to develop future high-quality investigations.

The shoulder joint complex in the throwing motion.

The shoulder joint complex in the overhead athlete is organized to effectively transfer the proximally generated forces distally into the arm. The organization also protects the joints and anatomic structures against the repetitive high velocities, large ranges of motions, and compressive, shear, translational, and distraction loads in the overhead motion while placing the hand in the "launch window." Coupling of the movements of the scapula, clavicle, and humerus results in scapulohumeral rhythm (SHR). Effective SHR requires the clavicle and scapula-and, at times, the mechanically linked claviscapular segment-to move the arm into the task-specific position and motion and requires the humerus to move through the ranges of motion to achieve the specific task in the throwing motion. Alterations in SHR can negatively affect effective shoulder joint complex function in the overhead throwing motion and increase injury risk. There are 4 phases of clavicular, scapular, and claviscapular motion that are coupled with arm motion in SHR. The first 3 phases occur in arm elevation motions from 0°-90° and result in the claviscapula and humerus being placed in task-specific positions. The fourth phase is coupling of claviscapular motion with humeral motion to maintain ball-and-socket kinematics throughout the throwing motion. Alterations in this composite motion are termed "scapular dyskinesis." The dyskinesis is considered an impairment of the efficient mobility of the claviscapular segment of the shoulder complex. The most prevalent problem with scapular dyskinesis is the association of scapular protraction and consequent glenoid antetilt with alterations in humeral rotation and posterior humeral head translation to produce shoulder joint internal impingement. Task effectiveness in overhead throwing is also based on and determined by humeral range of motion, precision of humeral motion, and velocity of humeral motion, as well as humeral and arm position in 3-dimensional space. This activity requires maximum ball-and-socket kinematics to create the highest amount of concavity-compression that creates stability for the joint. There are bony and soft-tissue contributions to this stability. Injuries to the glenoid labrum are among the most common deficits that alter concavity-compression. Clinical evaluation of the shoulder joint complex in the injured throwing athlete should be comprehensive and systematic, following an evaluation pathway for proximal and distal causative factors and including observation of humeral motion. This type of evaluation can result in intervention protocols that address the pathoanatomic, pathophysiological, and pathomechanical deficits identified.

Rehabilitation of the painful shoulder.

Managing the painful shoulder in overhead athletes can be difficult because of a lack of time-loss injuries in overhead sports and focusing primarily on either pathoanatomic causes or movement impairments. Although managing the painful shoulder can be challenging, the combination of identifying pathoanatomic causes with movement impairments can provide a more focused rehabilitation approach directed at the causes of shoulder pain. Understanding the potential influence of scapular positioning as well as mobility and/or strength impairments on shoulder pain can help clinicians develop more directed rehabilitation programs. Furthermore, sports-specific methods such as long toss or the use of weighted balls for achieving physiological or performance-based gains have limited empirical evidence regarding their clinical and performance-based benefits, which may impede the rehabilitation process. Applying a comprehensive evaluation approach prior to and throughout the treatment process can assist clinicians with selecting the most appropriate treatment based on patient need. Reconsidering traditional treatments based on existing evidence may help refine the treatment process for overhead athletes with shoulder pain.

A Plague of Their Own: Injury Incidence Remains Elevated in the 2021 Major League Baseball Season Compared to Pre-COVID-19 Seasons.

Background: Significant increases in injuries were observed in the 2020 Major League Baseball (MLB) season; these were attributed to an increased acute to chronic workload due to the interrupted preseason and compressed season during the coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. In 2021, the MLB resumed its regular schedule. Hypothesis/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine the injury incidence and epidemiology of the 2021 MLB season compared to the injury incidence in the 2020 season and pre-COVID-19 seasons. The hypothesis was that, with the return to normal preseason training, injury incidence in 2021 would return to pre-COVID-19 rates. Additionally, it was hypothesized that injury list (IL) placements at midseason 2021 would be decreased relative to 2020 due to the uninterrupted preseason yet increased at full season 2021 due to increased overall workload from 2020. Study Design: Descriptive epidemiology study. Methods: The MLB transactions database was searched for players placed on the IL between 2018 and 2021. Injuries were categorized by body part and player position. Incidence per 1000 athlete-exposures was calculated for the pre-COVID-19 (2018-2019), 2020, and 2021 seasons. The z test for proportions was used to determine significant differences between injury incidences. Results: The injury incidence rate by midseason 2021 (9.32) compared to 2020 (8.66) was not significantly different (p=0.234). At full season 2021, injury incidence rate (8.69) was significantly higher than pre-COVID-19 seasons (5.13, p<0.001), but not 2020 (p=0.952). When comparing full season 2021 to 2020, increased foot/ankle (0.50 vs 0.14, respectively, p<0.001) and miscellaneous (1.92 vs 0.68, respectively, p<0.001) injuries were observed. Conclusion: The overall injury incidence in 2021 was significantly higher than pre-COVID-19 seasons, and no significant difference was observed between both mid- and full season 2021 and 2020, refuting the hypotheses. This signifies that injury incidence remained elevated in the 2021 season despite resumption of preseason training and a regular season. Level of Evidence: 3.

More Elevated Fastballs Associated With Placement on the Injured List due to Shoulder Injury.

Purpose: To evaluate whether impending shoulder injury was associated with changes in pitch location or velocity immediately preceding injury. Methods: Pitchers placed on the injured list (IL) due to a shoulder injury between 2015 and 2020 were identified in the Major League Baseball transactions database. Four-seam fastball velocity and frequency of pitch location for each pitch type was collected for each player in the season before placement on the IL and within 1 month of placement on the IL with a minimum of 55 pitches thrown of 1 type. Pitch locations were collected as identified by Baseball Savant's Game-Day Zones. Game-Day Zones were consolidated into high (above the strike zone midpoint) versus low, arm side (closer to the pitcher's arm side of the plate) versus opposite side, and within the strike zone versus out of zone. Repeated measures analysis of variance determined differences in four-seam velocity and the location distribution of 4-seam fastballs, change-ups, and breaking balls among each group. Results: In total, 267 pitchers were placed on the IL for a shoulder injury with the majority diagnosed with inflammation (89/267) followed by strain or sprain (69/267). Four-seam fastball locations significantly increased above the mid-point of the zone (45.9% vs 42.4%, P = .008) and out of the strike zone (48.5% vs 46.5%, P = .011) within a month before IL placement. There was no significant change in 4-seam fastball velocity immediately before IL placement. Conclusions: Pitchers threw more elevated 4-seam fastballs and out-of-zone 4-seam fastballs in the month before IL placement for shoulder injury. These findings suggest that a loss of 4-seam fastball command decreases with impending shoulder injury. Level of Evidence: IV, prognostic case series.

Glenoid Labral Injuries Are More Common Posteriorly Than Superiorly and Are Combined Across Multiple Areas of the Glenoid.

Purpose: To categorize arthroscopically observed labral injuries to include location on the glenoid and frequency of the injuries in each location. Methods: Patients undergoing arthroscopic labral surgery between January 2018 and June 2020 were reviewed. Inclusion criteria for labral injury were consistently applied and included history, clinical examination and imaging findings, and failure of rehabilitation. Exclusion criteria included arthritis, adhesive capsulitis, and previous surgery. Injury locations were categorized into superior, anterior, and/or posterior areas on the glenoid and as isolated in one area or combined in more than one area. Injury patterns also were evaluated. Interrater and intrarater agreement was assessed between 2 raters for injury location and tear pattern for 22 randomly assigned cases. Results: In total, 167 cases met the inclusion criteria. Injuries were found in all areas. Combined injuries were found almost twice as often as isolated injuries (63.5% vs 37.5%). Isolated posterior injuries had the greatest frequency of all specific injury types (26.3%). Isolated superior injuries (SLAP 2-4) had a frequency of 7.2%. Tear patterns included peel back, separation/split, insubstance injury, peripheral rim flattening, and extension into the posterior inferior glenohumeral ligament. Interrater was excellent for all tear locations (intraclass correlation coefficient ≥0.85) whereas intrarater agreement was good to excellent (intraclass correlation coefficient ≥0.63). Conclusions: Labral injuries that are associated with clinical symptoms can occur as isolated or combined types in the superior, anterior, and posterior glenoid areas and can display multiple injury patterns. Combined types of injuries are almost twice as common as those that are isolated in one area. Posterior injuries, isolated or combined, are frequent but superior injuries are less common. Level of Evidence: Level IV, therapeutic case series.

Revision ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction in Major League Baseball pitchers: effects of fastball velocity and usage.

BACKGROUND: Ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) tears are prevalent in Major League Baseball (MLB) pitchers and can cause significant loss of time with varying reports of impact on performance. Revision UCL reconstruction (UCLR) is becoming increasingly common, with little known about the effects on fastball (FB) velocity and usage (FB%) in this setting. HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE: The purpose was to evaluate the effect of revision UCLR on MLB pitchers with respect to postoperative FB velocity and FB% at 1 and 2 years after return to play. The hypothesis was postoperative FB velocity and FB% would significantly decrease vs. prerevision levels, and that revision UCLRs would result in significantly decreased FB velocity and FB% in comparison to a matched group of MLB pitchers after primary UCLR. METHODS: Twenty-one pitchers who underwent revision UCLR and returned to MLB play were identified from public records from 2008-2021. The PITCHf(x) system collected FB velocity for 4-seam (4FB) and 2-seam (2FB) fastballs and total FB% for pitchers in the prerevision year as well as the 2 years after return. A matched control group of pitchers who underwent primary UCLR was used for comparison. RESULTS: There were no significant differences in FB velocity between prerevision levels (4FB 92.9 mph, 2FB 91.4 mph) and years 1 (4FB 92.5 mph, 2FB 91.2 mph) and 2 (4FB 93.4 mph, 2FB 91.1 mph) after revision UCLR. FB% decreased from the prerevision season (60.1) and the first (56.2, P = .036) and second years (52.5, P = .002) after return. There were no significant differences between FB velocity and FB% or between the revision and primary UCLR groups. CONCLUSION: Pitchers returning to the MLB level after revision UCLR can expect similar FB velocity to their prerevision FB velocity and to pitchers undergoing primary UCLR; however, they do demonstrate a decrease in FB%, which may suggest less confidence in their FB after RTP.

Injury Rates in Major League Baseball During the 2020 COVID-19 Season.

BACKGROUND: The 2020 Major League Baseball (MLB) season was drastically altered because of the COVID-19 pandemic. The changes included an extended layoff between March and July as well as a shortened preseason. PURPOSE/HYPOTHESIS: To determine the incidence and epidemiology of MLB injuries in the abbreviated 2020 season compared with prior seasons. We hypothesized that there was an increase in the overall injury rate in the 2020 season compared with the 2018-2019 seasons and that it equally affected all body regions. STUDY DESIGN: Descriptive epidemiology study. METHODS: The MLB transactions database was queried to find players who had been placed on the injury list between 2018 and 2020. Injuries were categorized into upper extremity, lower extremity, spine/core, and other injuries. Incidence per 1000 athlete-exposures was calculated for the prior 2 seasons (2018-2019) and for the 2020 season separately. Incidence for each category was also calculated separately for pitchers and fielders. Incidence rate ratios (IRRs) and confidence intervals were used to compare injury rates in 2018-2019 versus 2020. The z test for proportions was used to determine significant differences between injury incidences. RESULTS: In 2020, the overall incidence rate per 1000 athlete-exposures was almost twice the rate compared with the 2 seasons before COVID-19 (8.66 vs 5.13; IRR, 1.69 [95% CI, 1.53-1.87]; P < .001). Injury incidence increased similarly in 2020 for both pitchers (IRR, 1.68 [95% CI, 1.47-1.91]; P < .001) and fielders (IRR, 1.68 [95% CI, 1.45-1.96]; P < .001). Increases in injury incidence were seen in the upper extremity, spine/core, and other injury categories; however, the incidence of the lower extremity did not change significantly. CONCLUSION: There was a significant increase in injury incidence for both pitchers and fielders in 2020. Injury rates increased in anatomic zones of the upper extremity and spine/core but were not significantly changed in the lower extremity. The overall increase in injury rate suggests that irregular or insufficient sport-specific preparation prior to the start of the season placed athletes at a greater risk of injury when play resumed.

The Effect of Straight-Line Long-Toss Versus Ultra-Long-Toss Throwing on Passive Glenohumeral Range of Motion Recovery After Pitching.

BACKGROUND: Repetitive throwing in baseball pitchers can lead to pathologic changes in shoulder anatomy, range of motion (notably glenohumeral internal rotation deficit), and subsequent injury; however, the ideal strengthening, recovery, and maintenance protocol of the throwing shoulder in baseball remains unclear. Two strategies for throwing shoulder recovery from pitching are straight-line long-toss (SLT) throwing and ultra-long-toss (ULT) throwing, although neither is preferentially supported by empirical data. HYPOTHESIS: ULT will be more effective in returning baseline internal rotation as compared with SLT in collegiate pitchers after a pitching session. STUDY DESIGN: Cohort study. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level 3. METHODS: A total of 24 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I baseball pitchers with mean age 20.0 ± 1.1 years were randomized to either the ULT group (n = 13; 9 right-hand dominant, 4 left-hand dominant) or SLT group (n = 11; 10 right-hand dominant, 1 left-hand dominant). Measurements (dominant and nondominant, 90° abducted external rotation [ER], internal rotation [IR], and total range of motion [TROM]) were taken at 5 time points across 3 days: before and immediately after a standardized bullpen session on day 1; before and immediately after a randomized standardized ULT or SLT session on day 2; and before practice on Day 3. RESULTS: ULT demonstrated significantly greater final ER compared with baseline (+10°; P = 0.05), but did not demonstrate significant IR changes. Similarly, SLT demonstrated significantly greater post-SLT ER (+12°; P = 0.02) and TROM (+12°;P = 0.01) compared with baseline, but no significant IR changes. Final ER measurements were similar between ULT (135° ± 14°) and SLT (138° ± 10°) (P = 0.59). There was also no statistically significant difference in final IR between ULT (51° ± 14°) and SLT (56° ± 8°) (P = 0.27). CONCLUSION: The routine use of postperformance, ULT throwing to recover from range of motion alterations, specifically IR loss, after a pitching session is not superior to standard, SLT throwing. Based on these findings, the choice of postpitching recovery throwing could be player specific based on experience and comfort. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The most effective throwing regimens for enhancing performance and reducing residual impairment are unclear, and ideal recovery and maintenance protocols are frequently debated with little supporting data. Two strategies for throwing shoulder recovery from pitching are SLT and ULT throwing. These are employed to help maintain range of motion and limit IR loss in pitchers. The routine use of ULT throwing for recovery and to limit range of motion alterations after a pitching session is not superior to SLT throwing.

Pain catastrophizing behaviors and their relation to poor patient-reported outcomes after scapular muscle reattachment.

HYPOTHESIS: We hypothesized that the patient-reported status following treatment of traumatic scapular muscle detachment would improve from the preoperative status and that higher pain catastrophizing scores would be more common in patients with poor postsurgical outcomes. METHODS: We studied 50 patients who met the diagnostic criteria for scapular muscle detachment and in whom rehabilitation failed. American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons (ASES) scores were collected preoperatively and postoperatively. Patients completed a 7-point global rating of change scale, the Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS), and a 10-point satisfaction scale (0-3, not satisfied [NS]; 4-6, moderately satisfied [MS]; or 7-10, highly satisfied [HS]) focused on current shoulder use. Statistical analyses compared preoperative and postoperative ASES scores, compared the 3 levels of satisfaction and ASES scores, and compared ASES scores in patients with low PCS scores (LPCS) (<20) versus high PCS scores (HPCS) (≥20). Significance was set at P < .05. RESULTS: ASES scores significantly improved following surgery (42 ± 20 preoperatively and 73 ± 21 postoperatively) (P < .001), and the global rating of change score was 2 ± 2. There were 39 LPCS patients (mean PCS, 7 ± 6) and 11 HPCS patients (mean PCS, 34 ± 8). HPCS patients had significantly lower postoperative ASES scores (53 ± 18) than LPCS patients (79 ± 18) (P < .001). The MS patients (n = 11) had significantly higher ASES scores than the NS patients (n = 10) (P = .003), while the HS patients (n = 29) had significantly greater ASES scores than the other groups (P ≤ .001). Of the HPCS patients, 90% were in the NS and MS groups compared with 10% in the HS group. CONCLUSIONS: Surgical restoration for scapular muscle detachment can result in meaningful improvement in outcomes. Pain catastrophizing negatively affected the self-reported outcome scores.

Responsiveness and Internal Validity of Common Patient-Reported Outcome Measures Following Total Shoulder Arthroplasty.

The Constant-Murley (Constant) score, Western Ontario Osteoarthritis of the Shoulder (WOOS) index, American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons (ASES) score, and Single Assessment Numeric Evaluation (SANE) score are commonly used to assess patient-reported function following shoulder surgery. However, psychometric properties for these tools are mostly unknown for patients with primary glenohumeral arthritis who have undergone anatomic total shoulder arthroplasty (TSA). The purposes of this study were to (1) compare the responsiveness and internal validity between the 4 patient-reported outcomes (PROs) and (2) identify PRO score values associated with patient satisfaction after TSA. A total of 234 primary TSAs were performed for primary glenohumeral osteoarthritis with a 2-year or greater follow-up. The Constant score, WOOS index, ASES score, SANE score, and patient satisfaction were assessed preoperatively and 2 to 5 years postoperatively. Effect sizes, standardized response means, and relative efficiency were calculated to determine responsiveness, and internal validity was determined via the presence of floor and/or ceiling effects. Receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curves were constructed to identify the minimum outcome score that could correctly identify a satisfied patient. At final follow-up, 88% of patients were satisfied. The PROs had large effect sizes and standardized response means (≥0.83). The minimum score that most correctly identified a patient as satisfied was 78 for ASES score, 18 for WOOS index, 73 for Constant score, and 58 for SANE score. However, the ASES score, WOOS index, and SANE score had marked postoperative ceiling effects, whereas the Constant score was the most responsive and internally valid tool. These results suggest that the Constant score should serve as the primary PRO for patients with primary glenohumeral arthritis, whereas the WOOS index, ASES score, and SANE score could be supplementary assessments. [Orthopedics. 2017; 40(3):e513-e519.].

Sleep Disturbance and Anatomic Shoulder Arthroplasty.

Sleep disturbance is commonly encountered in patients with glenohumeral joint arthritis and can be a factor that drives patients to consider surgery. The prevalence of sleep disturbance before or after anatomic total shoulder arthroplasty has not been reported. The authors identified 232 eligible patients in a prospective shoulder arthroplasty registry following total shoulder arthroplasty for primary glenohumeral joint arthritis with 2- to 5-year follow-up. Sleep disturbance secondary to the affected shoulder was characterized preoperatively and postoperatively as no sleep disturbance, frequent sleep disturbance, or nightly sleep disturbance. A total of 211 patients (91%) reported sleep disturbance prior to surgery. Patients with nightly sleep disturbance had significantly worse (P<.05) Constant pain, Constant activity, and Western Ontario Osteoarthritis Shoulder index scores prior to surgery. Postoperatively, there was a significant improvement in the prevalence of sleep disturbance, with 186 patients (80%) reporting no sleep disturbance (P<.001). The no sleep disturbance group had significantly greater patient-reported outcome scores and range of motion following surgery compared with the other sleep disturbance groups for nearly all outcome measures (P≤.01). Patients have significant improvements in sleep after anatomic shoulder arthroplasty. There was a high prevalence of sleep disturbance preoperatively (211 patients, 91%) compared with postoperatively (46 patients, 20%). [Orthopedics. 2017; 40(3):e450-e454.].

Treatment of Symptomatic Acromioclavicular Joint Instability by a Docking Technique: Clinical Indications, Surgical Technique, and Outcomes.

PURPOSE: To report functional and objective outcomes resulting from surgical treatment of patients with symptomatic type III through V acromioclavicular (AC) joint injury by use of a modification of the anatomic AC joint reconstruction developed by Carofino and Mazzocca. METHODS: The study included all patients treated in 2009-2014 who presented with a history of direct trauma to the shoulder; deformity of the AC joint on clinical examination; radiographic findings that would classify the injury as a Rockwood type III, IV, or V injury; AC joint instability on clinical examination; and self-reported deficits of arm function on initial presentation, in whom a comprehensive and directed nonoperative program failed. The surgical procedure used an allograft with reinforcing internal sutures passed around the coracoid and through anatomically positioned clavicular holes for the coracoclavicular (CC) ligaments, used a docking technique for reconstruction of the superior AC ligaments, and included repair of the native AC ligaments. Outcomes were reported for patients with a minimum follow-up period of 1.5 years. Outcome measurements included dynamic-static stability evaluation and Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH) scores. RESULTS: The study included 15 patients with 15 affected shoulders. The postsurgical follow-up period averaged 3 years (range, 1.5-5 years). Postoperatively, one patient showed loss of reduction after a fall. All others showed 2-dimensional radiographic stability and 3-dimensional dynamic clinical stability. Static radiographic measurement of the CC distance at discharge averaged 0.93 cm compared with 2.7 cm on initial examination (P < .0001). Patient-reported outcomes at an average of 3 years' follow-up showed a DASH score of 13 compared with a preoperative DASH score of 51 (P < .0001). CONCLUSIONS: This study confirms that anatomic CC ligament reconstruction and repair or reconstruction of the AC ligaments help restore arm function as shown by the patient-specific and clinical outcome metrics. These results were achieved by correction of the deformity, which in turn allowed for the obtainment of static and dynamic stability. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV.

Volume-based Interval Training Program for Elite Tennis Players.

BACKGROUND: A sport-specific conditioning program can help tennis players train for competition or return to play from injury. This study determined the actual tennis serve volume in elite play and used these data to construct an interval training program based on stroke volume. HYPOTHESIS: There will be no differences in serve volume between male and female tennis players at the professional and junior levels. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level 3. METHODS: Game day statistic scorecards were provided to the research team from the 2013 and 2014 United States Open and the 2014 Metropolia Orange Bowl International Tennis Championships. Serve volume data for both male and female players were extracted from the scorecards. Data included serves per match and per set. These data were used to construct a sport-specific tennis program to meet the demands of the serve. RESULTS: Professional male players serve 63 more serves per match than junior male players because of the greater number of sets played ( P < 0.01). Professional female players serve 10 more serves per match than junior female players playing the same number of sets ( P = 0.01). All male players hit 2 more total serves per set than all female players ( P < 0.01). Regardless of sex, professional players serve 4 more serves per set than junior players ( P < 0.01). The typical number of serves per set was 40 in elite-level tennis players, resulting in a 3:1 ratio of first to second serves. CONCLUSION: These data establish the "unit dose" of serves per match and/or per set for each group. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Coaches and health care providers may use these data in estimating loads per tournament/season and to prepare tennis athletes for individual competition and/or as they return to play after an injury.

Comparison of satisfied and dissatisfied patients 2 to 5 years after anatomic total shoulder arthroplasty.

BACKGROUND: With an increasingly large number of patients undergoing total shoulder arthroplasty (TSA) combined with increased requirements for public reporting of patient outcomes, there is a greater need to better understand the underlying factors related to patient satisfaction. The purpose of this study was to compare patient demographics, nonorthopedic comorbidities, patient-reported outcome scores, and range of motion of patients who reported being either satisfied or dissatisfied with their procedure at midterm follow-up. METHODS: We identified 234 primary TSAs performed by a single surgeon for glenohumeral osteoarthritis with a minimum 2-year follow-up in a prospective shoulder arthroplasty registry. American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons (ASES) score, patient satisfaction, and active forward flexion, abduction, and external rotation at 0° of flexion-abduction were assessed before and after TSA. RESULTS: Of the 234 patients, 207 (88.5%) were satisfied with their procedure. Dissatisfied patients had significantly lower ASES scores both before and after surgery (P < .001) as well as a significantly lower preoperative to postoperative change in ASES score (P < .001). Similarly, dissatisfied patients demonstrated significantly lower changes in active forward flexion (P = .004), abduction (P = .02), and external rotation (P = .03). Patients with ASES score changes <12 points were 19 times more likely to be dissatisfied after TSA (95% confidence interval, 4.4-81.4; P = .0001). CONCLUSION: Dissatisfied patients had significantly lower improvements in pain, function, and range of motion. Furthermore, a change in ASES score <12 points was associated with a 19-fold increase in the risk of being dissatisfied after TSA.

Preoperative opioid use associated with worse outcomes after anatomic shoulder arthroplasty.

BACKGROUND: Preoperative opioid use has been associated with worse clinical outcomes after orthopedic surgery. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of preoperative opioid use on outcomes and patient satisfaction after anatomic total shoulder arthroplasty (TSA). METHODS: We identified 224 TSAs performed for primary glenohumeral joint osteoarthritis with 2- to 5-year follow-up in a prospective shoulder arthroplasty registry. Sixty patients with a history of preoperative opioid use for shoulder pain were compared with a control group of 164 patients. Patient-reported outcome measurements, range of motion measurements, and patient satisfaction were assessed preoperatively and at most recent follow-up. RESULTS: Preoperative opioid use was associated with significantly worse preoperative patient-reported outcome scores for nearly all outcome measures. Both groups significantly improved on all outcome scores and range of motion measurements from preoperative to most recent follow-up; however, the nonopioid group had significantly better postoperative outcome scores. There was a statistical difference between the 2 groups regarding the number of satisfied patients, with 80% satisfied in the opioid group (48 of 60 patients) compared with 91% satisfied in the nonopioid group (149 of 164 patients) (P = .03). CONCLUSION: Patients with a history of preoperative opioid use can achieve significant improvements in patient-reported outcome measurements and patient satisfaction after anatomic TSA for primary glenohumeral joint arthritis. However, patients with preoperative opioid use have a significantly lower preoperative baseline and achieve significantly lower final outcome scores after TSA compared with patients without a history of preoperative opioid use.

Increasing Ball Velocity in the Overhead Athlete: A Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.

Overhead athletes routinely search for ways to improve sport performance, and one component of performance is ball velocity. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to investigate the effect of different strengthening interventions on ball and serve velocity. A comprehensive literature search with pre-set inclusion and exclusion criteria from 1970 to 2014 was conducted. Eligible studies were randomized control trials including the mean and SDs of both pretest and posttest ball velocities in both the experimental and the control groups. The outcome of interest was ball/serve velocity in baseball, tennis, or softball athletes. Level 2 evidence or higher was investigated to determine the effect different training interventions had on velocity. Pretest and posttest data were extracted to calculate Hedges's g effect sizes with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Methodological qualities of the final 13 articles within the analysis were assessed using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database scale. The majority of the articles included in this analysis had an effect on velocity with the strongest effect sizes found in periodized training (Hedges's g = 3.445; 95% CI = 1.976-4.914). Six studies had CI that crossed zero, indicating that those specific interventions should be interpreted with caution. Consistent and high-quality evidence exists that specific resistance training interventions have an effect on velocity. These findings suggest that interventions consisting of isokinetic training, multimodal training, and periodization training are clinically beneficial at increasing velocity in the overhead athlete over different windows of time.

Preliminary development of a clinical prediction rule for treatment of patients with suspected SLAP tears.

PURPOSE: To use the clinical prediction rule process to identify patient variables, measured on initial clinical presentation, that would be predictive of failure to achieve satisfactory improvement, while following a rehabilitation program, in the modification of SLAP injury symptoms and dysfunction. METHODS: A cohort of patients received the clinical diagnosis of a SLAP lesion based on specific history and examination findings and/or magnetic resonance imaging. They underwent a physical examination of the kinetic chain and shoulder, including tests for labral injury. Patients followed a standardized physical therapy program emphasizing restoration of demonstrated strength, flexibility, and strength-balance deficits. At 6 weeks' follow-up, patients were re-evaluated and divided into those recommended for surgery (RS) and those not recommended for surgery (NRS). Bivariate logistic regression was performed to identify the best combination of predictive factors. RESULTS: Fifty-eight patients (aged 39 ± 11 years, 45 men) were included. Of these, 31 (53%) were categorized as NRS and 27 (47%) as RS. The presence of a painful arc of motion (odds ratio, 3.95; P = .024) and the presence of increased forward scapular posture (odds ratio, 1.27; P = .094) on the injured side were predictive of being in the RS group. This finding indicates that the odds of being in the RS group increased 4 times when a positive painful arc was present and increased 27% with every 1-cm increase in involved anterior shoulder posture. CONCLUSIONS: A structured rehabilitation program resulted in modification of symptoms and improved function at 6 weeks' follow-up in over half of patients in the study group. On initial evaluation, the presence of a painful arc of overhead motion, indicating loss of normal glenohumeral kinematics, and the presence of forward shoulder posture, indicating an altered scapular position, represent negative predictive factors for success of rehabilitation. Future validation of the model in a larger population is necessary. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level II, prospective comparative study.