Photobiomodulation of Na,K-ATPase in native membrane fraction and reconstituted in DPPC:DPPE-liposome.

Studies focusing on how photobiomodulation (PBM) can affect the structure and function of proteins are scarce in the literature. Few previous studies have shown that the enzymatic activity of Na,K-ATPAse (NKA) can be photo-modulated. However, the variability of sample preparation and light irradiation wavelengths have not allowed for an unequivocal conclusion about the PBM of NKA. Here, we investigate minimal membrane models containing NKA, namely, native membrane fraction and DPPC:DPPE proteoliposome upon laser irradiation at wavelengths 532, 650, and 780 nm. Interestingly, we show that the PBM on the NKA enzymatic activity has a bell-shaped profile with a stimulation peak (~15% increase) at around 20 J.cm-2 and 6 J.cm-2 for the membrane-bound and the proteoliposome samples, respectively, and are practically wavelength independent. Further, by normalizing the enzymatic activity by the NKA enzyme concentration, we show that the PBM response is related to the protein amount with small influence due to protein's environment. The stimulation decays over time reaching the basal level around 6 h after the irradiation for the three lasers and both NKA samples. Our results demonstrate the potential of using low-level laser therapy to modulate NKA activity, which may have therapeutic implications and benefits.

Differential effects of the lipidic and ionic microenvironment on NPP1's phosphohydrolase and phosphodiesterase activities.

Ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 1 (NPP1) is an enzyme present in matrix vesicles (MV). NPP1 participates on the regulation of bone formation by producing pyrophosphate (PPi) from adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Here, we have used liposomes bearing dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC), sphingomyelin (SM), and cholesterol (Chol) harboring NPP1 to mimic the composition of MV lipid rafts to investigate ionic and lipidic influence on NPP1 activity and mineral propagation. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) revealed that DPPC-liposomes had spherical and smooth surface. The presence of SM and Chol elicited rough and smooth surface, respectively. NPP1 insertion produced protrusions in all the liposome surface. Maximum phosphodiesterase activity emerged at 0.082 M ionic strength, whereas maximum phosphomonohydrolase activity arose at low ionic strength. Phosphoserine-Calcium Phosphate Complex (PS-CPLX) and amorphous calcium-phosphate (ACP) induced mineral propagation in DPPC- and DPPC:SM-liposomes and in DPPC:Chol-liposomes, respectively. Mineral characterization revealed the presence of bands assigned to HAp in the mineral propagated by NPP1 harbored in DPPC-liposomes without nucleators or in DPPC:Chol-liposomes with ACP nucleators. These data show that studying how the ionic and lipidic environment affects NPP1 properties is important, especially for HAp obtained under controlled conditions in vitro.

NPP1 and TNAP hydrolyze ATP synergistically during biomineralization.

Matrix vesicles (MVs) are a special class of extracellular vesicles released by mineralizing cells during bone and tooth mineralization that initiate the precipitation of apatitic minerals by regulating the extracellular ratio between inorganic phosphate (Pi), a calcification promoter, and pyrophosphate (PPi), a calcification inhibitor. The Pi/PPi ratio is thought to be controlled by two ecto-phosphatases present on the outer leaflet of the MVs' membrane: ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 1 (NPP1) that produces PPi as well as Pi from ATP and tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP) that hydrolyzes both ATP and PPi to generate Pi. However, if and how these enzymes act in concert in MVs are still unclear. Herein, we investigated the role of NPP1 and TNAP in ATP hydrolysis during MV-mediated biomineralization using proteoliposomes as a biomimetic model for MVs. Proteoliposomes composed by 1,2-dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) and harboring NPP1 alone, TNAP alone, or both together at different molar ratios (1:1, 10:1, and 1:10) were fabricated. After 48 h of incubation with ATP, TNAP-containing proteoliposomes consumed more ATP than NPP1-containing vesicles (270 and 210 nmol, respectively). Both types of vesicles comparatively formed ADP (205 and 201 nmol, respectively), while NPP1-containing vesicles hydrolyzed AMP less efficiently than TNAP-containing proteoliposomes (10 and 25 nmol, respectively). In vitro mineralization assays showed that in the presence of ATP, TNAP-harboring proteoliposomes mineralized through a sigmoidal single-step process, while NPP1-harboring vesicles displayed a two-step mineralization process. ATR-FTIR analyses showed that the minerals produced by TNAP-harboring proteoliposomes were structurally more similar to hydroxyapatite than those produced by NPP1-harboring vesicles. Our results with proteoliposomes indicate that the pyrophosphohydrolase function of NPP1 and the phosphohydrolase activity of TNAP act synergistically to produce a Pi/PPi ratio conducive to mineralization and the synergism is maximal when the two enzymes are present at equimolar concentrations. The significance of these findings for hypophosphatasia is discussed.

Biophysical aspects of biomineralization.

During the process of endochondral bone formation, chondrocytes and osteoblasts mineralize their extracellular matrix (ECM) by promoting the synthesis of hydroxyapatite (HA) seed crystals in the sheltered interior of membrane-limited matrix vesicles (MVs). Several lipid and proteins present in the membrane of the MVs mediate the interactions of MVs with the ECM and regulate the initial mineral deposition and posterior propagation. Among the proteins of MV membranes, ion transporters control the availability of phosphate and calcium needed for initial HA deposition. Phosphatases (orphan phosphatase 1, ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 1 and tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase) play a crucial role in controlling the inorganic pyrophosphate/inorganic phosphate ratio that allows MV-mediated initiation of mineralization. The lipidic microenvironment can help in the nucleation process of first crystals and also plays a crucial physiological role in the function of MV-associated enzymes and transporters (type III sodium-dependent phosphate transporters, annexins and Na+/K+ ATPase). The whole process is mediated and regulated by the action of several molecules and steps, which make the process complex and highly regulated. Liposomes and proteoliposomes, as models of biological membranes, facilitate the understanding of lipid-protein interactions with emphasis on the properties of physicochemical and biochemical processes. In this review, we discuss the use of proteoliposomes as multiple protein carrier systems intended to mimic the various functions of MVs during the initiation and propagation of mineral growth in the course of biomineralization. We focus on studies applying biophysical tools to characterize the biomimetic models in order to gain an understanding of the importance of lipid-protein and lipid-lipid interfaces throughout the process.