The potential significance of antioxidants in livestock reproduction: Sperm viability and cryopreservation.

Male reproductive efficiency is primarily defined by the generation of high-quality and viable sperm cells in farm animals. However, the literature shows that male fertility has declined in recent years due various factors including heat stress, which causes the development of free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS) which damages sperm cells. This review aimed to examine the potential significance of antioxidants in increasing and preserving sperm quality and viability. Data used to produce this review paper came from recently published articles in peer reviewed journals. Google Scholar, Science Direct, Research Gate, Web of Science, and the Directory of Open Access Journals were used to access the data. Various studies have shown that antioxidants play acritical role in preserving the sperm quality and viability by protecting sperm cells from the potential damage from oxidative stress induced by the development of oxygen species imbalances. However, there is less information on the use of natural or synthetic antioxidants to preserve semen quality through in vivo procedures, despite its growing popularity and promising results. Hence, there is a need for researchers to explore more on this topic, especially in other livestock species than poultry.

Copping out of novel feeds: HOW climate change pledgers and food summits overlooked insect protein.

The intention with this critical review is to appraise recent work done on insect proteins as animal feeds, and to discuss the possible factors which led to the ruling out of insect proteins by food and feed commissioners, as well as climate change pledgers. Of late, edible insect larvae have gained popularity as a promising protein source. On the basis of proximate analysis, insect species such as Tenebrio molitor, Musca domestica, Acheta domestica, Zophobas morio and Hermetia illucens have been reported to contain substantial amounts of protein, essential amino acids and minerals. Given these chemical properties, insects may be fruitfully utilized as a partial or sole protein source for monogastric rations. Although insect larvae hold immense potential as promising sustainable protein ingredients which are both ecologically and environmentally friendly, these unconventional feedstuffs are frequently overlooked and/or excluded from policies and legislation on feedstuff of animal origin, at local and international summits which pledge to develop sustainable food systems. Concerns about food insecurity, our expanding carbon footprint and deteriorating ecosystems, dictate that food and climate change summits bring to the mitigation table the concept of transitioning animal diets. A change must be effected from standard to sustainable diets, starting with a declaration on environmental impact and climate change concerns related to soybean cultivation and marine loss due to overfishing. The available literature on the chemical properties and environmental impact of fishmeal and soyabean meal production was scrutinized by accessing electronic databases and comparing these to insects' nutritional composition and the impact which insect rearing has on the environment. As the literature search results revealed, information on the specific laws dealing with insect proteins as feed ingredients is scant, while the existing laws vary greatly. This has implications for innovation, as well as the trade in insect protein at a global level.

Fats and major fatty acids present in edible insects utilised as food and livestock feed.

Common food sources including meat, fish and vegetables are the main source of fats and fatty acids required by human body. Edible insects such as worms, locusts, termites, crickets and flies have also been identified as a potential source of essential fatty acids since they are highly documented to be rich in unsaturated fatty acids such as α-linolenic and linoleic acids which are vital for the normal functioning of the body. The approval of insects as edible food by the European Union has sparked research interest in their potential to form part of human and animal diets due to their abundant protein, amino acids, fats, and minerals. However, little attention has been given to the importance and health benefits of lipids and fatty acids present in edible insects consumed by human and animals. This article aims to review the biological significance of essential fatty acids found in edible insects. The accumulation of fats and essential fatty acids present in edible insects were identified and described based on recommended levels required in human diets. Furthermore, the health benefits associated with insect oils as well as different processing techniques that could influence the quality of fats and fatty acid in edible insects were discussed.

The accumulation of heavy metals in feeder insects and their impact on animal production.

Insects have emerged as a novel feed protein source that could help to produce enough food to feed the growing global population. Good-quality protein content, minerals and bioactive compounds are the main reasons for the use of insects in livestock. Nonetheless, insects should be proven to be safe for use before being used as feeder insects for livestock. The accumulation of heavy metals in the feedstuff is becoming a major food safety concern, as this poses a serious problem to animal health and threatens human health through the transmission of toxic substances into the human food chain. It has been shown that feeder insects grown from agricultural waste materials contain chemical contaminants such as pesticides and veterinary drug residues. Current research mostly focuses on the safety evaluation of undesirable substances in edible insects for human consumption, but rarely indicates if these insects are safe to use in livestock feeds, particularly for avian species. Therefore, owing to the potential risks of heavy metal in animal production, heavy metal residues in feeder insects have received scientific attention. Hence, this review article is intended to evaluate and discuss selected heavy metals in insects, comparing them with toxicity limits for feedstuff of animal origin, and their potential risks of exposure. A literature search on metal elements present in insects was conducted using electronic databases. In addition, the citations included in articles were used to find other relevant articles or documents on this topic. Identified published articles were grouped and evaluated according to the insect species, growth stage and substrate from which the insects were grown. It was observed that the accumulation of heavy metals in insects is mainly associated with agricultural waste materials fed to insects. Furthermore, metal toxicity in animals varies according to animal species and age, metal type, concentration, and chemical form.

Effect of amaranth leaf meal on performance, meat, and bone characteristics of Ross 308 broiler chickens.

This study aimed to determine the effect of amaranth leaf meal (ALM) inclusion levels on the productivity of Ross 308 broiler chickens. A total of 200, day-old, Ross 308 broiler chicks were randomly allocated to five dietary treatments in a complete randomized design, with each group having four replicates with ten chicks each. Amaranth leaf meal inclusion levels used in this study were 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20%. Bodyweight and feed intake were measured weekly to calculate the feed conversion ratio. Meat and bone traits of broiler chickens fed amaranth leaf meal at varying levels were also measured whereas the general linear model of statistical analysis software was used to analyze collected data. Amaranth leaf meal inclusion level had no effect (p > 0.05) on initial weight, final weight, average daily gain, and average daily feed intake of Ross 308 broiler chickens aged one to 42 days. Ross 308 broiler chickens which were given diets with 0 and 10% ALM inclusion levels, had higher (p < 0.05) cooking loss than those on diets with 5, 15, and 20% of ALM inclusion levels. Chickens fed with a diet having a 15% ALM inclusion level, had a greater (p < 0.05) tibia diameter than those on 0, 5, 10, and 20% ALM inclusion levels. Ross 308 broiler chickens which were fed with 5 and 15% ALM inclusion levels, had larger (p < 0.05) femur diameters than those on 0, 10, and 20% ALM inclusion levels. Ross 308 broiler chickens fed with diets having a 15% ALM inclusion level, had longer (p < 0.05) tibia lengths than those fed with diets having 0, 5, and 10% ALM inclusion levels. It can be concluded that amaranth leaf meal can be included in the diets of Ross 308 broiler chickens aged one to 42 days at 5, 10, and 15% levels without adverse effects on productivity, meat quality, and the bone characteristics of the chickens. This augurs well for poultry farmers in many parts of Africa where the production of vegetable amaranth is in abundance.

The Influence of Different Amaranth Leaf Meal Inclusion Levels on Performance, Blood Profiles, and Gut Organ Characteristics of Ross 308 Broiler Chickens.

This study aimed to determine the effect of varying inclusion levels of amaranth leaf meal on the performance, blood profiles, and gut organ characteristics of Ross 308 broiler chickens. A total of 200, day-old, Ross 308 broiler chicks were randomly allocated to five dietary treatments in a complete randomized design, with each group having four replicates with ten chicks. Amaranth leaf meal (ALM) inclusion levels used in this study were 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20%. Body weight and feed intake were measured weekly to calculate the feed conversion ratio. Gut organ weights, lengths, organ pH, and blood profiles were measured and the general linear model of statistical analysis software was used to analyze collected data. ALM had no effect (p > 0.05) on feed intake, body weight, or the feed conversion ratio of Ross 308 broiler chickens between 1-21 and 22-42 days, respectively. Furthermore, ALM inclusion levels had no effect (p > 0.05) on dry matter (DM) or gross energy (GE) digestibility of Ross 308 broiler chickens. Ross 308 broiler chickens, which were fed with 5% ALM inclusion levels, had higher (p < 0.05) white blood cells, lymphocytes, and eosinophils than those fed with diets containing 0, 10, 15, and 20%. Chickens that were fed with 0 and 20% ALM inclusion levels had higher (p < 0.05) heterophils than those fed with diets containing 5, 10, and 15%. Chickens that were fed with 15% ALM inclusion levels had higher (p < 0.05) monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils than those fed with diets containing 0, 10, and 20%. Apart from Ile, ALM inclusion of 5 and 10% had higher (p < 0.05) essential and nonessential amino acid digestibility in Ross 308 broiler chickens. ALM inclusion levels had no effect (p > 0.05) on gut organ lengths or weights of Ross 308 broiler chickens aged 21 and 42 days. In conclusion, 5, 10, and 15% ALM inclusion levels can be included in broiler chicken diets as they showed favor in most of the affected parameters.

Bacillus Probiotics as Alternatives to In-feed Antibiotics and Its Influence on Growth, Serum Chemistry, Antioxidant Status, Intestinal Histomorphology, and Lesion Scores in Disease-Challenged Broiler Chickens.

In commercial poultry production, chickens are reared under intensive conditions, which may allow infections to spread quickly. Antibiotics are used at sub-therapeutic doses in livestock and poultry feed to prevent diseases and improve productivity. However, restrictions on the use of antibiotics at sub-therapeutic concentrations in livestock feed due to growing concerns of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), together with antibiotic residues in meat and eggs has prompted poultry researchers and feed producers to look for viable alternatives. Thus, there is increasing interest in developing natural alternatives to in-feed antibiotics to improve chicken productivity and health. Probiotics, specifically from the genus Bacillus have proven to be effective due to their spore-forming capabilities. Furthermore, their ability to withstand heat during feed processing and be stored for a long time without losing viability as well as their potential to function in the acidic medium of the chicken gut, provide them with several advantages over conventional probiotics. Several studies regarding the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of Bacillus probiotics and their positive impact in chicken nutrition have been documented. Therefore, the present review shields light on the positive effect of Bacillus probiotics as alternatives to in-feed antibiotics on growth performance, serum chemistry, antioxidant status, intestinal histomorphology and lesion scores of disease-challenged broiler chickens and the mechanisms by which they exert their actions. It is concluded that Bacillus probiotics supplementation improve growth, health and productive indices of disease-challenged broiler chickens and can be a good alternative to in-feed antibiotics. However, more studies are required on the effect of Bacillus probiotics supplementation in broiler chickens to maximize productivity and achieve the ultimate goal of stopping the usage of antibiotics at sub-therapeutic doses in broiler chicken feed to enhance performance.

Chemical Composition and Metabolomic Analysis of Amaranthus cruentus Grains Harvested at Different Stages.

This study aimed at investigating the impact of early versus normal grain harvesting on the chemical composition and secondary metabolites of Amaranthus cruentus species grown in South Africa. Mature harvested grain had higher (p < 0.05) DM, CF, NDF and ADF content compared to prematurely harvested grain. There were no significant (p > 0.05) differences between CP, ADL and GE of premature and mature harvested grains. Mature harvesting resulted in higher grain Ca, P, Mg and K content. Essential amino acids spectrum and content remained similar regardless of maturity at harvest. The grains displayed an ample amount of unsaturated fatty acids; the highest percentage was linoleic acid: 38.75% and 39.74% in premature and mature grains, respectively. ß-Tocotrienol was detected at 5.92 and 9.67 mg/kg in premature and mature grains, respectively. The lowest was δ-tocotrienol which was 0.01 and 0.54 mg/kg in premature and mature grains, respectively. Mature harvested grain had a higher secondary metabolite content compared to premature harvested grains. The results suggest that mature harvested Amaranthus cruentus grain contain more minerals and phytochemicals that have health benefits for human and livestock immunity and gut function, which ultimately improves performance. This study concludes that A. cruentus grown in South Africa is a potential alternative cereal to major conventional cereals.

Apparent digestibility and nutritional composition of Leucaena leucocephala (Lam) leaf meal incorporated in the diets of Black Australorp and Potchefstroom Koekoek chicken breeds.

The objective of the study was to determine the apparent digestibility and nutrient composition of Leucaena leucocephala leaf meal (LLM) inclusion in Black Australorp and Potchefstroom Koekoek diets. Tender and mature leaves were separately harvested from 10 individual trees and stored separately for chemical analyses. The leaves were air-dried in a well-ventilated laboratory to constant weight and milled to pass through a 1-mm sieve. A mixture of tender and mature leaves was also collected to produce a bulk leaf meal. The four iso-nitrogenous dietary treatments were 0 (control), 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% of LLM, respectively. The apparent digestibility of two chicken breeds was also evaluated. The dry matter (DM), neutral detergent fibre (NDF), ether extract (EE), cellulose and hemicellulose of the samples did not differ between tender and mature leaves. Tender leaves had higher (P < 0.05) calcium, potassium, magnesium and sodium concentration than mature leaves. Crude protein and mimosine content were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in tender than in mature leaves. The inclusion levels of L. leucocephala leaf meal affect (P < 0.05) acid detergent fibre (ADF), neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and crude protein (CP) digestibility. Crude protein digestibility decreases as the inclusion levels of L. leucocephala increase. Both tender and mature L. leucocephala leaves have a potential nutritional value that can be used in feedstuff and can be used as a protein supplement for Black Australorp and Potchefstroom Koekoek chicken breeds.

Review on Ethnoveterinary Practices in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Background: Livestock represents an important sector for the livelihood of sub-Saharan African countries' inhabitants. In these countries, farmers raise livestock to meet household food demands and as additional sources of incomes, but its production is hampered by rampant animal diseases. The impact of animal diseases is particularly severe for poor communities that, although relying heavily on livestock, have limited access to modern veterinary services and therefore rely on indigenous medicines for the treatment of livestock ailments. Methods: The current review focuses on the ethnoveterinary health management practices found amongst livestock producers in sub-Saharan Africa. Documents were sourced from Google databases. Results: A total of 56 documents were reviewed, most of which were published recently (after 2000). The documents revealed the wide use of ethnoveterinary medicines among livestock producers in sub-Saharan African countries because of their cost and accessibility, threats to ethnomedicinal plant species through improper harvesting methods, overexploitation, the existence of inappropriate ethnoveterinary practices, and methods of conserving ethnomedicinal species. Conclusions: Given the persistent threats posed to ethnoveterinary medicine and/or practices in developing countries of sub-Saharan Africa, the findings of this review highlight the importance of integrating and promoting the use of ethnoveterinary medicine that is likely to be lost if it is not given enough importance. It is also important to obtain an overview of recent publications on ethnoveterinary medicines to identify the gaps and scope required to be filled by future studies. It is envisaged that the review will stimulate further ethnoveterinary research among livestock disease management practices, which could lead to new pharmaceuticals in the region.

Assessment of the phenolic compounds of pearl and finger millets obtained from South Africa and Zimbabwe.

Millet grains are rich in phenolic compounds which have health benefits. This study aims to elucidate the phenolic properties of pearl and finger millet grown in South Africa and Zimbabwe. The milled samples were analyzed by Waters Synapt G2 Quadrupole time-of-flight (QTOF) mass spectrometer (MS). A total of eight phenolic compounds were detected and quantified in the millet varieties, which included derivatives of benzoic acid such as protocatechuic and p-hydroxybenzoic acids. Flavonoids such as catechin, epicatechin, procyanidin B1, procyanidin B2, and kaempferol glycoside were also detected. Generally, catechin was the dominant phenolic compound, followed by epicatechin. The mean values for catechin ranged from 2.50 to 12.6 mg/kg for the pearl millet and 610.4 to 675.1 mg/kg for the finger millet. While the epicatechin mean values ranged between 1.2 to 1.8 for pearl millet and 99.1 to 139.5 for finger millet. Procyanidins B1 and B2 were only detected and quantified in the finger millet types, While Kaempferol glycoside was only recorded in the pearl millets with mean values of 196.0 mg/kg for pearl millet South Africa and 213.6 mg/kg for pearl millet Zimbabwe. There was a difference among the varieties for the content of kaempferol glycoside. Protocatechuic and p-hydroxybenzoic acids were only present in the finger millet types, their mean values were (20.9, 23.7 mg/kg) and (16.8,13.5 mg/kg) respectively. It can be substantiated from the outcome of this study that millet can be used as a source of valuable phenolic compounds and that the variety of millet is the determining factor of the phenolic compound content.

Characterization of the Phenolic Compounds in Different Plant Parts of Amaranthus cruentus Grown under Cultivated Conditions.

Phenolic compounds that are present in amaranth crops have gained a lot of interest from researchers due to their health benefits potential. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate phenolic compounds present in different plant parts of Amaranthuscruentus using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Moreover, data were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance of the statistical analysis software, whereas commercial statistical package version 4.02 was used for principal component analysis. A total of 21 phenolic compounds were detected and eight were not identified. Caffeoylsaccharic acid isomer, coumaoryl saccharic acid, tryptophan, feruloyl-d-saccharic acid isomer a, b, and c, caffeoyl isocitrate, quercetin 3-O-rhamnosyl-rhamnosyl-glucoside, feruloyl isocitrate, hyperoside, kaempferol rutinoside, and alkaloid compounds were mostly detected in tender and mature leaves. Generally, rutin content was higher (p < 0.05) in most vegetative parts of the amaranth plant, thus, late maturity leaves, tender leaves, and mature leaves, respectively. Lower quantities of rutin were observed in tender grains, flowers, and mature grains. It can be concluded that amaranth contains phenolic compounds, predominantly in the vegetative parts, which makes it to be a promising source of phenolic compounds beneficial to human health.

The Probable Use of Genus amaranthus as Feed Material for Monogastric Animals.

This review presents, discusses, and provides a comprehensive understanding of the potential use of amaranth as feed for monogastric animals. Amaranth is an ancient nutritious crop that has been cultivated for multiple purposes. In America, Asia, and Africa, the leaves of amaranth species are used as vegetables. The change in climatic conditions globally has resulted in shortages of rainfall, unpredictable weather, and lack of inputs such as fertilizer. This has led to scarcity of protein sources in the market and instability in prices which makes it necessary to consider alternative ingredients in poultry, pigs, fish, and rabbits feed formulation. Amaranth is rich in fiber, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and phenolic compounds which have some health benefits in animals and can be used to improve productivity. It also contains anti-nutritional factors which can be reduced by several processing methods. Moreover, its use in monogastric nutrition is useful because amaranth has shown to improve monogastric productivity without having any adverse effect on animals' productivity. Thus, from this review, it can be concluded that amaranth leaves and grains can be used successfully in monogastric animals though different processing methods which might need to be employed in order to reduce anti-nutritional factors before use in animals.