Natural course of cannabis use disorders.

BACKGROUND: Despite its importance as a public health concern, relatively little is known about the natural course of cannabis use disorders (CUDs). The primary objective of this research was to provide descriptive data on the onset, recovery and recurrence functions of CUDs during the high-risk periods of adolescence, emerging adulthood and young adulthood based on data from a large prospective community sample. METHOD: Probands (n = 816) from the Oregon Adolescent Depression Project (OADP) participated in four diagnostic assessments (T1-T4) between the ages of 16 and 30 years, during which current and past CUDs were assessed. RESULTS: The weighted lifetime prevalence of CUDs was 19.1% with an average onset age of 18.6 years. Although gender was not significantly related to the age of initial CUD onset, men were more likely to be diagnosed with a lifetime CUD. Of those diagnosed with a CUD episode, 81.8% eventually achieved recovery during the study period. Women achieved recovery significantly more quickly than men. The recurrence rate (27.7%) was relatively modest, and most likely to occur within the first 36 months following the offset of the first CUD episode. CUD recurrence was uncommon after 72 months of remission and recovery. CONCLUSIONS: CUDs are relatively common, affecting about one out of five persons in the OADP sample prior to the age of 30 years. Eventual recovery from index CUD episodes is the norm, although about 30% of those with a CUD exhibit a generally persistent pattern of problematic use extending 7 years or longer.

Mental illness training on the Internet for nurse aides: a replication study.

Internet training courses for nurse aides (NAs) in long-term care facilities (LTCs) have been shown to be effective. Little is known, however, about Internet training effects on NAs in a non-research context, or about continued utilization of an available training programme. In this research, a replication study was conducted with the Internet training programme Caring Skills: Working with Mental Illness. Three LTCs provided the training to all NAs, each within a 1-month interval scheduled during consecutive months. Supervisors were interviewed subsequently about their experiences organizing and supervising the training. Participants in all three LTCs showed positive pre-post-tests effects with large effect sizes on situational knowledge and self-efficacy, and knowledge about mental illness. Users rated the programme highly, and they indicated that it would improve quality of their resident care. Supervisors praised the training, and they said NAs were using recommended training behaviours. Although available to all staff, nursing and other staff made little use of the training in subsequent months. Training for NAs on the Internet thus appears feasible, and it is perceived to be beneficial for resident care. Plans for continued utilization and dissemination of best practices to other staff, however, should be integrated when planning for staff training on the Internet.

Co-morbidity between major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders: shared etiology or direct causation?

BACKGROUND: Major depressive disorder (MDD) and anxiety disorders (ANX) are debilitating and prevalent conditions that often co-occur in adolescence and young adulthood. The leading theoretical models of their co-morbidity include the direct causation model and the shared etiology model. The present study compared these etiological models of MDD-ANX co-morbidity in a large, prospective, non-clinical sample of adolescents tracked through age 30. METHOD: Logistic regression was used to examine cross-sectional associations between ANX and MDD at Time 1 (T1). In prospective analyses, Cox proportional hazards models were used to examine T1 predictors of subsequent disorder onset, including risk factors specific to each disorder or common to both disorders. Prospective predictive effect of a lifetime history of one disorder (e.g. MDD) on the subsequent onset of the second disorder (e.g. ANX) was then examined. This step was repeated while controlling for common risk factors. RESULTS: The findings supported relatively distinct profiles of risk between MDD and ANX depending on order of development. Whereas the shared etiology model best explained co-morbid cases in which MDD preceded ANX, direct causation was supported for co-morbid cases in which ANX preceded MDD. CONCLUSIONS: Consistent with previous research, significant cross-sectional and prospective associations were found between MDD and ANX. The results of the present study suggest that different etiological models may characterize the co-morbidity between MDD and ANX based upon the temporal order of onset. Implications for classification and prevention efforts are discussed.

A computer-assisted depression intervention in primary care.

BACKGROUND: The clinical benefit for depression of an interactive computer-assisted cognitive-behavioral program on CD-ROM, the Wellness Workshop (WW), was evaluated in a randomized controlled trial. METHOD: A total of 191 individuals referred by primary-care physicians were randomly assigned to a control group, where physician-directed treatment as usual (TAU) was provided, or to a treatment group, where TAU was supplemented with the WW CD-ROM, delivered by mail (WW+TAU). Data were collected at baseline, at 6 weeks' post-intervention, and at a 6-month follow-up assessment. Participants were given a strong incentive by a reimbursement of $75 for completion of each assessment. Measures included symptom ratings obtained via structured clinical diagnostic interviews, as well as a battery of self-report questionnaires on symptoms specifically targeted by the intervention. RESULTS: Analysis of results demonstrated evidence for skill acquisition for improving dysfunctional thinking and reducing anxiety. Among those who met diagnostic criteria for depression, WW+TAU participants were three times more likely to remit at 6 weeks' post-test than TAU participants. CONCLUSIONS: The evidence supports the conclusion that the WW intervention added benefit to traditional care for depression. No placebo comparison group was included and the WW+TAU participants received slightly more attention (a supportive telephone contact, ≤ 5 min from a psychologist 2 weeks after receiving the program). Overall, the findings add support to the accumulating evidence for the potential clinical benefit of computer-assisted behavioral health interventions.

The long-term course of depression: development of an empirical index and identification of early adult outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Research on the long-term course of major depressive disorder (MDD) is hindered by the absence of established course criteria and by idiosyncratic definitions of chronicity. The aims of this study were to derive an empirical index of MDD course, to examine its predictive validity, and to identify the adulthood outcomes associated with a chronic course. METHOD: Indicators for a MDD course factor were rationally selected and subjected to principal components (PCA) and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) among 426 subjects with a lifetime history of MDD by age 30. Scores on the index prior to age 19 were examined as predictors of course from age 19 to 30. Associations between the index and outcomes of interest at age 30 were examined. RESULTS: Three indicators loaded highly on a chronic course index and displayed adequate internal consistency: early onset age, number of episodes, and duration of ill time. Predictive validity of the index was supported. A more chronic course was associated with greater symptom severity, greater likelihood of treatment utilization, and greater psychosocial impairment in multiple domains. Treatment utilization interacted with chronicity to predict relatively few outcomes and did not reduce the negative impact of a chronic course. CONCLUSIONS: The course of MDD through early adulthood is best represented by a composite of early onset age, number of episodes, and duration of ill time. A chronic course through early adulthood is associated with numerous indicators of psychosocial impairment. Mental health treatment utilization in a naturalistic setting does not appear to reduce the negative impact of chronic MDD.

Family study of subthreshold psychopathology in a community sample.

BACKGROUND: There has been increasing interest in the validity and familial transmission of subthreshold psychiatric conditions and the relationship between subthreshold conditions and full syndrome (FS) disorders. However, most of these studies examined a single subthreshold condition and thus fail to take into account the high co-morbidity among subthreshold conditions and between subthreshold conditions and FS disorders. METHOD: A family study of subthreshold psychiatric conditions was conducted with 739 community-drawn young adults and their 1744 relatives. We examined (1) whether relatives of probands with subthreshold major depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders, alcohol use, substance use, and/or conduct disorder exhibited an increased rate of the corresponding (homotypic) FS disorder; (2) whether subthreshold disorders were associated with increased familial rates of other (heterotypic) FS disorders; (3) whether subthreshold and FS conditions are associated with similar familial liabilities; and (4) whether these homotypic and heterotypic associations persisted after controlling for co-morbidity. RESULTS: Significant homotypic associations were observed for subthreshold anxiety, alcohol, conduct, and a trend was observed for major depression. Only the homotypic association for alcohol and conduct remained after controlling for co-morbid subthreshold and FS conditions. Many heterotypic associations were observed and most remained after controlling for co-morbidity. CONCLUSIONS: It is important to broaden the study of subthreshold psychopathology to multiple disorders. In particular cases, controlling for co-morbidity with other subthreshold and FS conditions altered the patterns of familial aggregation. Etiological processes that are common to particular disorders and subthreshold conditions are discussed.

Bipolar disorders during adolescence.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the incidence, correlates, course and family history of bipolar disorder (BD) and subthreshold BD in adolescents. METHOD: Structured diagnostic interviews were conducted with a large community sample of adolescents and their first-degree relatives, and the adolescents were re-evaluated as young adults. RESULTS: The first lifetime onset of BD and subthreshold BD almost always occurred in adolescence. Adolescent BD and subthreshold BD were associated with elevated impairment, comorbidity, and suicide attempts. Adolescents with BD were at increased risk for BD, and adolescents with subthreshold BD were at increased risk for major depressive disorder (MDD) in young adulthood. Relatives of BD adolescents had elevated rates of subthreshold BD and MDD, and relatives of subthreshold BD adolescents had elevated rates of BD and MDD. CONCLUSION: 'Classical' BD clearly exists in adolescence, but there is also a spectrum of milder bipolar conditions. Remediating and preventing BD in adolescents should be a high public health priority.

Family study of co-morbidity between major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders.

BACKGROUND: Numerous studies have documented high rates of co-morbidity between major depressive disorder (MDD) and the anxiety disorders (ANX). However, the reason for this is unclear. Family studies provide one potentially useful approach for addressing this issue. METHOD: We explored six explanations of the co-morbidity between MDD and ANX using a family study of a large community sample of young adults and their first-degree relatives. Participants included 112 probands with a lifetime history of both MDD and one or more ANX, 290 probands with a history of MDD but no ANX, 43 probands with a history of one or more ANX but no MDD. 352 probands with no lifetime history of either MDD or ANX, and the probands' 2608 first-degree relatives. Probands were assessed using semi-structured diagnostic interviews on two occasions in adolescence and a third time at age 24. Diagnostic data on relatives were collected using both direct and family history interviews. RESULTS: Compared with controls, MDD aggregated in the families of probands with MDD, whether or not they had co-morbid ANX; ANX aggregated in the families of probands with ANX, regardless of whether they had co-morbid MDD; and co-morbid MDD/ANX aggregated only in the families of probands with both MDD and ANX. The relatives of probands with ANX alone had a significantly higher rate of ANX than the relatives of probands with MDD alone, although none of the other comparisons between the depressed and anxious groups were significant. CONCLUSIONS: This pattern of findings is largely, although not completely, consistent with the view that MDD and ANX are transmitted independently within families, and suggests that the comorbidity between MDD and ANX is caused by non-familial aetiological factors.

Depression, suicidal ideation and STD-related risk in homeless older adolescents.

Goals of this study were to examine the frequency of depression and related constructs of suicidal ideation and hopelessness in a sample of homeless older adolescents and their associations with behaviors that may increase the risk of sexually transmitted disease (STD). Diagnostic interviews and blood/urine samples were obtained from 523 homeless adolescents (mean age=17.8). Overall, 12.2 per cent had a current DSM-IV diagnosis of major depression and 6.5 per cent had dysthymia, with higher rates for female and older participants. Depression appeared to precede rather than follow homelessness and was associated with biologically verified STDs (in older participants), infrequent condom use, a non-heterosexual orientation (in older participants), and lifetime homosexual experience. Unlike depression, suicidal ideation and hopelessness were associated with higher rates of intravenous drug use but lower rates of multiple sex partners and, in young homeless women, less sexual coercion. Depression is frequent in homeless older adolescents and has a complex association with STD-related behaviors.

Impact of comorbidity on a cognitive-behavioral group treatment for adolescent depression.

OBJECTIVE: Examine hypotheses concerning the negative impact of lifetime psychiatric comorbidity on participation in, and benefit from, a cognitive-behavioral group treatment for depression in adolescents (e.g., greater severity at intake, less recovery and more recurrence, less participation in treatment). METHOD: Across two previous studies conducted between 1986 and 1993, 151 depressed adolescents (aged 14-18) were randomly assigned to one of three treatment conditions (two active treatments and a waitlist control) and followed for 24 months posttreatment. Forty percent of participants had one or more lifetime comorbid diagnoses at intake. RESULTS: Comorbid anxiety disorders were associated with higher depression measure scores at intake and greater decrease in depression scores by posttreatment. Overall lifetime comorbidity was unrelated to diagnostic recovery, but lifetime substance abuse/dependence was associated with slower time to recovery. Participants with attention-deficit and disruptive behavior disorders were more likely to experience depression recurrence posttreatment. Associations between comorbidity and participation or therapy process measures were nonsignificant. CONCLUSIONS: Although some outcomes were worse for some comorbid diagnoses, the reassuring overall conclusion is that the presence of psychiatric comorbidity is generally not a contraindication for the use of structured group cognitive-behavioral interventions for depressed adolescents.

The diabetes network internet-based physical activity intervention: a randomized pilot study.

OBJECTIVE: Because of other competing priorities, physical activity (PA) is seldom addressed in a consistent way in either primary care or diabetes education. This 8-week pilot study evaluated the short-term benefits of an Internet-based supplement to usual care that focused on providing support for sedentary patients with type 2 diabetes to increase their PA levels. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A total of 78 type 2 diabetic patients (53% female, average age 52.3 years) were randomized to the Diabetes Network (D-Net) Active Lives PA Intervention or an Internet information-only condition. The intervention condition received goal-setting and personalized feedback, identified and developed strategies to overcome barriers, received and could post messages to an on-line "personal coach," and were invited to participate in peer group support areas. Key outcomes included minutes of PA per week and depressive symptomatology. RESULTS: There was an overall moderate improvement in PA levels within both intervention and control conditions, but there was no significant improvement in regard to condition effects. There was substantial variability in both site use and outcomes within the intervention and control conditions. Internal analyses revealed that among intervention participants, those who used the site more regularly derived significantly greater benefits, whereas those in the control condition derived no similar benefits with increased program use. CONCLUSIONS: Internet-based self-management interventions for PA and other regimen areas have great potential to enhance the care of diabetes and other chronic conditions. We conclude that greater attention should be focused on methods to sustain involvement with Internet-based intervention health promotion programs over time.

Gender differences in suicide attempts from adolescence to young adulthood.

OBJECTIVE: To examine associations of age, gender, and psychosocial factors during adolescence with risk of suicide attempt between ages 19 and 23 years. METHOD: Initial assessments were conducted with 1,709 adolescents (aged 14-18) in western Oregon between 1987 and 1989. One year later, 1,507 participants returned for a second assessment. A subset of participants (n = 941; 57.2% women) had a third diagnostic assessment after turning 24 (between 1993 and 1999). Information on suicidal behavior, psychosocial risk factors, and lifetime DSM-III-R psychiatric diagnosis was collected at each assessment. RESULTS: The suicide attempt hazard rate for female adolescents was significantly higher than for male adolescents (Wilcoxon chi 2(1)[n = 941] = 12.69, p < .001). By age 19, the attempt hazard rate for female adolescents dropped to a level comparable with that of male adolescents. Disappearance of the gender difference for suicide attempts by young adulthood was not paralleled by a decrease in the gender difference for major depression. Adolescent suicidal behavior predicted suicide attempt during young adulthood for female, but not male, participants. Adolescent psychosocial risk factors for suicide attempt during young adulthood were identified separately for girls and boys. CONCLUSIONS: Unlike depression, the elevated incidence rate of suicide attempts by adolescent girls is not maintained into young adulthood. Screening and prevention implications are discussed.

Natural course of alcohol use disorders from adolescence to young adulthood.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the course of alcohol use disorder (AUD) and determine the extent to which AUD in adolescence is a risk factor for AUD and other psychopathology in young adulthood. METHOD: Nine hundred forty participants from a large community sample in western Oregon were interviewed twice during adolescence (14-18 years of age the first assessment; between 1987 and 1991) and once at age 24 (1993-1999). Between 1995 and 1998, parents were assessed for lifetime AUD. Participants were classified into nonproblematic use (NON), problem drinker (PROB) (symptoms of AUD but no diagnosis), and AUD groups. RESULTS: Adolescent AUD significantly predicted AUD, substance use disorder, depression, and elevated levels of antisocial and borderline personality disorder symptoms by age 24. Compared with the NON group, adolescents in the PROB group were at increased risk for AUD, substance use disorder, depression, and antisocial personality disorder symptoms. However, the PROB group had lower rates of future AUD and antisocial personality disorder symptoms than the adolescent AUD group. Gender interactions were nonsignificant. Daily smoking and conduct/oppositional defiant disorders predicted future AUD, when adolescent AUD and other disorders were controlled. Paternal, but not maternal, AUD was associated with greater risk of future AUD. CONCLUSIONS: For the majority of adolescents, AUD are not benign conditions that resolve over time. Assessment, treatment, and prevention recommendations are discussed.

A family study of major depressive disorder in a community sample of adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Family studies provide a useful approach to exploring the continuities and discontinuities between major depressive disorder (MDD) in children and adolescents and MDD in adults. We report a family study of MDD in a large community sample of adolescents. METHODS: Probands included 268 adolescents with a history of MDD, 110 adolescents with a history of nonmood disorders but no history of MDD through age 18 years, and 291 adolescents with no history of psychopathology through age 18 years. Psychopathology in their 2202 first-degree relatives was assessed with semistructured direct and family history interviews, and best-estimate diagnoses were derived with the use of all available data. RESULTS: The relatives of adolescents with MDD exhibited significantly elevated rates of MDD (hazard ratio [HR], 1.77; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.46-2.31), dysthymia (HR, 1.79; 95% CI, 1. 11-2.87), and alcohol abuse or dependence (HR, 1.29; 95% CI, 1.05-1. 53), but not anxiety disorders, drug abuse or dependence, or antisocial and borderline personality disorder. In contrast, anxiety, substance use, and disruptive behavior disorders in adolescents were not associated with elevated rates of MDD in relatives. However, the relatives of probands with anxiety and substance use disorders exhibited elevated rates of anxiety and substance use disorders, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The results provide evidence of the familial aggregation of adolescent MDD, and also indicate that there is a considerable specificity in the pattern of familial transmission. In addition, we found preliminary evidence of the familial aggregation of adolescent anxiety and substance use disorders.

Psychosocial correlates of cigarette smoking abstinence, experimentation, persistence and frequency during adolescence.

The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to examine and to compare the psychosocial characteristics associated with four dimensions of smoking: abstinence (never vs. ever), experimentation, frequency (daily vs. non-daily), and persistence (former vs. current). Persistent smokers (1 or more years) were contrasted with those who had been able to stop smoking for 1 year or more. From a sample of high school students who were assessed on two occasions (n = 1507), six smoking groups were defined: never smokers (n = 862), experimenters (n = 235), former non-daily (n = 80), current non-daily (n = 73), former daily (n = 71), and current daily (n = 110). The association between the four smoking dimensions and demographic, psychopathology, and psychosocial variables were examined. Differences between the never smokers and the experimenters were relatively small; albeit even minimal use of cigarettes is associated with some level of problems. As found in previous studies, smokers compared to never-smokers had substantially higher scores on most indices of dysfunction. Both frequent and persistent smoking was associated with higher lifetime prevalence of drug abuse/dependence and having more friends who smoke. Smoking persistence was uniquely related to greater conflict with parents and more problematic academic behavior. Smoking frequency was uniquely associated with higher impulsiveness. Gender did not significantly moderate the associations between smoking status and the psychosocial functioning. To the extent that there were differences between the characteristics associated with frequency and persistence, the results have implications for the design of interventions aimed at these dimensions.

Epidemiology and natural course of eating disorders in young women from adolescence to young adulthood.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the epidemiology of eating disorders (ED) in a community sample of adolescent girls; to compare the clinical characteristics of full-syndrome (FS) and partial-syndrome (PS) ED cases; and to provide information about the continuity between adolescent ED and young adult psychopathology. METHOD: A randomly selected sample of high school girls were assessed during adolescence (n = 891) and a year later (n = 810), and a stratified subset (n = 538) was assessed during their 24th year. The assessments included the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children, the Longitudinal Interval Follow-up Evaluation, level of functioning, mental health treatment utilization, history of suicide attempt, and physical symptoms. RESULTS: The incidence of ED was less than 2.8% by age 18, and 1.3% for ages 19 through 23. Comorbidity with other psychopathology (89.5%), but especially depression, was very high. FS- and PS-ED groups differed significantly from a no-disorder comparison group on most outcome measures, and more than 70% of the adolescent FS- and PS-ED cases met criteria for an Axis I disorder in young adulthood. CONCLUSIONS: FS- and PS-ED are associated with substantial comorbidity, treatment seeking, impaired functioning, and risk for psychopathology in young adulthood.

Natural course of adolescent major depressive disorder in a community sample: predictors of recurrence in young adults.

OBJECTIVE: The primary purpose was to identify factors related to the recurrence of major depressive disorder during young adulthood (19-23 years of age) in a community sample of formerly depressed adolescents. METHOD: A total of 274 participants with adolescent-onset major depressive disorder were assessed twice during adolescence and again after their 24th birthday. Lifetime psychiatric information was obtained from their first-degree relatives. Adolescent predictor variables included demographic characteristics, psychosocial variables, characteristics of adolescent major depressive disorder, comorbidity, family history of major depressive disorder and nonmood disorder, and antisocial and borderline personality disorder symptoms. RESULTS: Low levels of excessive emotional reliance, a single episode of major depressive disorder in adolescence, low proportion of family members with recurrent major depressive disorder, low levels of antisocial and borderline personality disorder symptoms, and a positive attributional style (males only) independently predicted which formerly depressed adolescents would remain free of future psychopathology. Female gender, multiple major depressive disorder episodes in adolescence, higher proportion of family members with recurrent major depressive disorder, elevated borderline personality disorder symptoms, and conflict with parents (females only) independently predicted recurrent major depressive disorder. Comorbid anxiety and substance use disorders in adolescence and elevated antisocial personality disorder symptoms independently distinguished adolescents who developed recurrent major depressive disorder comorbid with nonmood disorder from those who developed pure major depressive disorder. CONCLUSIONS: Formerly depressed adolescents with the risk factors identified in this study are at elevated risk for recurrence of major depressive disorder during young adulthood and therefore warrant continued monitoring and preventive or prophylactic treatment.

Clinical implications of "subthreshold" depressive symptoms.

There is active debate regarding whether diagnosable depression exists on a continuum with subthreshold depressive symptoms or represents a categorically distinct phenomenon. To address this question, multiple indexes of dysfunction (psychosocial difficulties, mental health treatment history, and future incidence of major depression and substance abuse/dependence) were examined as a function of the extent of depressive symptoms in 3 large community samples (adolescent, adult, and older adult; N = 3,003). Increasing levels of depressive symptoms were associated with increasing levels of psychosocial dysfunction and incidence of major depression and substance use disorders. These findings suggest that (a) the clinical significance of depressive symptoms does not depend on crossing the major depressive diagnostic threshold and (b) depression may best be conceptualized as a continuum. Limitations of the present study are discussed.

Bipolar disorder during adolescence and young adulthood in a community sample.

OBJECTIVES: To compare the incidence and prevalence of bipolar disorder (BD) between adolescence and young adulthood; to explore the stability and consequences of adolescent BD in young adulthood; to determine the rate of switching from major depressive disorder (MDD) to BD; and to evaluate the significance of subsyndromal BD (SUB). METHODS: A large, randomly selected community sample (n = 1,507) received diagnostic assessments twice during adolescence, and a stratified subset (n = 893) was assessed again at 24 years of age. In addition, direct interviews were conducted with all available first-degree relatives. Five mutually exclusive groups, based on diagnoses in adolescence, were compared: BD (n = 17), SUB (n = 48), MDD (n = 275), disruptive behavior disorder (n = 49), and no-disorder (ND) controls (n = 307). RESULTS: Lifetime prevalence of BD was approximately 1% during adolescence and 2%, during young adulthood. Lifetime prevalence for SUB was approximately 5%. Less than 1%, of adolescents with MDD 'switched' to BD by age 24. Adolescents with BD had an elevated incidence of BD from 19 to 23 years, while adolescents with SUB exhibited elevated rates of MDD and anxiety disorders in young adulthood. BD and SUB groups both had elevated rates of antisocial symptoms and borderline personality symptoms. Compared to the ND group, adolescents with BD and SUB both showed significant impairment in psychosocial functioning and had higher mental-health treatment utilization at age 24 years of age. The relatives of adolescents with BD and SUB had elevated rates of MDD and anxiety disorders. The relatives of SUB probands had elevated BD, while the relatives of BD had elevated rates of SUB and borderline symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Adolescent BD showed significant continuity across developmental periods and was associated with adverse outcomes during young adulthood. Adolescent SUB was also associated with adverse outcomes in young adulthood, but was not associated with an increased incidence of BD. Due to high rates of comorbidity with other disorders, definitive conclusions regarding the specific clinical significance of SUB must await studies with larger numbers of 'pure' SUB cases.

Life events and depression in adolescence: relationship loss as a prospective risk factor for first onset of major depressive disorder.

Although stressful life events have consistently been linked to the onset of major depressive disorder (MDD), most research has not distinguished 1st episodes from recurrences. In a large epidemiologic sample of older adolescents (N = 1,470) assessed at 2 time points, the risk conferred by a recent romantic break-up was examined as a predictor of 1st onset versus recurrence of MDD. Results indicated a heightened likelihood of 1st onset of MDD during adolescence if a recent break-up had been reported; in contrast, a recent break-up did not predict recurrence of depression. These results held for both genders and remained significant after controlling for gender. Additional analyses to determine the discriminant validity and specificity of these findings strongly supported the recent break-up as a significant risk factor for a 1st episode of MDD during adolescence. Implications of these findings and subsequent research directions are discussed.