Development of sorafenib loaded nanoparticles to improve oral bioavailability using a quality by design approach.

Sorafenib, a potent anticancer drug, has low absorption in the gastrointestinal tract due to its poor aqueous solubility. The main purpose of this investigation was to design sorafenib nanoparticle using a newly developed technique, nanoparticulation using fat and supercritical fluid (NUFS™) to improve the absorption of sorafenib. The quality by design (QbD) tool was adopted to define the optimal formulation variables: hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC), polyvinyl pyrrolidone K30 (PVP), and poloxamer. The studied response variables were particle size of nanoparticle, dissolution (5, 60, and 180 min), drug concentration time profile of nanoparticle formulations, and maximum drug concentration. The result of particle size revealed that an increase in concentration of poloxamer and HPMC decreased the particle size of nanoparticles (p < 0.05). Likewise, the concentration of drug release at different time point (5, 60, and 180 min) showed HPMC and poloxamer had positive effects on drug dissolution while PVP had negative effects on it. The design space was built in accordance with the particle size of nanoparticle (target < 500 nm) and dissolution of sorafenib (target > 7 µm/mL), following failure probability analysis using Monte Carlo simulations. In vivo pharmacokinetics studies in beagle dogs demonstrated that optimized formulation of sorafenib (F3 and F4 tablets) exhibited higher blood drug profiles indicating better absorption compared to the reference tablet (Nexavar®). In conclusion, this study showed the importance of systematic formulation design for understanding the effect of formulation variables on the characteristics of nanoparticles of the poorly soluble drug.

Single-Dose Comparative Pharmacokinetics of Two Formulations of Lenalidomide 25 mg in Healthy Subjects: A Randomized Crossover Study.

BACKGROUND: Lenalidomide is used for the treatment of multiple myeloma in combination with dexamethasone. The purpose of this study was to compare the pharmacokinetics (PKs) and assess the bioequivalence of two formulations of lenalidomide 25 mg: Lenalid® 25 mg tablet (test formulation) and Revlimid® 25 mg capsule (reference formulation). METHODS: A randomized, single-dose, two-treatment, two-period, two-sequence crossover study was conducted in 42 healthy subjects. All subjects were randomly assigned to one of the two sequences, and they received a single dose of test or reference formulation in the first period and the alternative formulation during the next period under fasting conditions. Serial blood samples for PK evaluation were collected up to 24 h post-dose and the PK parameters were estimated by non-compartmental methods. Throughout the study, tolerability was assessed on the basis of adverse events, vital signs, and clinical laboratory tests. RESULTS: The test formulation showed similar PK profiles to those of the reference formulation. The geometric mean ratio and 90% confidence interval (CI) of the test formulation to the reference formulation for maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) was 0.9995 (0.9250-1.0799) and the corresponding value for the area under the concentration-time curve from time zero to time of last quantifiable concentration (AUCt) was 0.9648 (0.9451-0.9850). Both CIs were within the conventional bioequivalence range of 0.8-1.25. The tolerability profile was not significantly different between the two formulations. CONCLUSION: This study found that the PKs of the two formulations of lenalidomide 25 mg were similar and the test formulation met the regulatory criteria for assuming bioequivalence with the reference formulation. FUNDING: Samyang Biopharmaceutical Corp.

Polymeric nanoparticle-docetaxel for the treatment of advanced solid tumors: phase I clinical trial and preclinical data from an orthotopic pancreatic cancer model.

We assessed the efficacy of the polymeric nanoparticle containing docetaxel (PNP-DTX) in preclinical mouse models and determined the maximum tolerated dose (MTD) through clinical study. Subcutaneous and orthotopic mouse models were dedicated. Tumor growth delay in orthotopic model and quantification of in vivo imaging in orthotopic model were evaluated. Phase I clinical study was a single-center, prospective, open-label trial in advanced solid tumors. PNP-DTX was injected intravenously and the starting dose was 20 mg/m2 escalated to 35 mg/m2, 45 mg/m2, 60 mg/m2 and 75 mg/m2. Pharmacokinetics, tumor response, toxicities were evaluated. Preclinical result revealed the more potent cytotoxic effect of PNP-DTX than docetaxel (DTX). However, there was no difference between PNP-DTX and DTX in subcutaneous model. Tubulin polymerization assay showed that PNP-DTX preserved original mode of action of DTX. For phase I clinical trial, 18 patients were analyzed. The dose of 75 mg/m2 was tentatively determined as the MTD and the most common toxicity was grade 4 neutropenia not lasting over 7days. The Cmax of 60 mg/m2 PNP-DTX and AUClast of 45 mg/m2 PNP-DTX were measured to be comparable to those of 75 mg/m2 DTX. Partial remission (PR) was achieved in 4 (22%) patients. The potency of PNP-DTX was revealed especially in orthotopic mouse model. The MTD of PNP-DTX could not be confirmed, but 75 mg/m2 was tentatively determined. The PNP-DTX of 45 mg/m2 had the same pharmacokinetic profile with that of 75 mg/m2 DTX.

Polymeric nanoparticles containing taxanes enhance chemoradiotherapeutic efficacy in non-small cell lung cancer.

PURPOSE: To reduce the side effects and improve the efficacy of chemoradiation therapy, taxanes were incorporated into polymeric nanoparticles (PNP), and their synergic effect on radiation therapy in non-small cell lung cancer was evaluated. METHODS AND MATERIALS: The properties of PNP-taxanes were characterized by transmission electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering. The chemoradiotherapeutic efficacy of PNP-taxanes was determined by clonogenic assay, cellular morphology, and flow cytometry in A549 cells. In mice bearing A549-derived tumors, the tumor growth delay was examined after the treatment of PNP-taxanes and/or ionizing radiation (IR). RESULTS: The PNP-taxanes were found to be approximately 45 nm in average diameter and to have high solubility in water. They showed the properties of active internalization into cells and preserved the anticancer effect of free taxanes. The survival fraction of A549 cells by clonogenic assay was significantly reduced in the group receiving combined treatment of PNP-taxanes and IR. In addition, in vivo radiotherapeutic efficacy was markedly enhanced by the intravenous injection of PNP-taxanes into the xenograft mice. CONCLUSIONS: We have demonstrated the feasibility of PNP-taxanes to enhance the efficacy of chemoradiation therapy. These results suggest PNP-taxanes can hold an invaluable and promising position in treating human cancers as a novel and effective chemoradiation therapy agent.

Preclinical evaluation of injectable sirolimus formulated with polymeric nanoparticle for cancer therapy.

Nanoparticles are useful delivery vehicles for promising drug candidates that face obstacles for clinical applicability. Sirolimus, an inhibitor of mammalian target of rapamycin has gained attention for targeted anticancer therapy, but its clinical application has been limited by its poor solubility. This study was designed to enhance the feasibility of sirolimus for human cancer treatment. Polymeric nanoparticle (PNP)-sirolimus was developed as an injectable formulation and has been characterized by transmission electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering. Pharmacokinetic analysis revealed that PNP-sirolimus has prolonged circulation in the blood. In addition, PNP-sirolimus preserved the in vitro killing effect of free sirolimus against cancer cells, and intravenous administration displayed its potent in vivo anticancer efficacy in xenograft tumor mice. In addition, PNP-sirolimus enhanced the radiotherapeutic efficacy of sirolimus both in vitro and in vivo. Clinical application of PNP-sirolimus is a promising strategy for human cancer treatment.

Development of docetaxel-loaded intravenous formulation, Nanoxel-PM™ using polymer-based delivery system.

Nanoxel-PM™, docetaxel-loaded methoxy-poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(d,l-lactide) (mPEG-PDLLA) micellar formulation was prepared in an effort to develop alternative, less toxic and efficacious Tween 80-free docetaxel formulation, and its pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and toxicity were evaluated in comparison with Taxotere® in preclinical studies. The mean diameter of the Nanoxel-PM™ was 10-50 nm and the polydispersity of samples exhibited a narrow size distribution and monodisperse unimodal pattern. Pharmacokinetic study in mice, rats and beagle dogs revealed that Nanoxel-PM™ exhibited similar pharmacokinetic profiles (C(max), AUC, t(1/2), CL, V(ss)) to Taxotere, and the relative mean AUC(t) and C(max) of Nanoxel-PM™ to Taxotere® were within 80-120%. Furthermore, excretion study in rats demonstrated that there was no statistically significant difference in the amount excreted in feces or urine as an unmetabolized docetaxel between Nanoxel-PM™ and Taxotere®. Its pharmacokinetic bioequivalence resulted in comparable anti-tumor efficacy to Taxotere® in human lung cancer xenografts H-460 in nude mice as well as in lung, ovary and breast cancer cell lines. Several animal toxicity studies on Nanoxel-PM™ compared with Taxotere® were carried out. In single dose rat and dog model and repeated dose mouse model, both Nanoxel-PM™ and Taxotere® exhibited similar toxic effects on hematology and body weight gain. On the other hand, vehicle related hypersensitivity reactions and fluid retentions were not observed when Nanoxel-PM™ was administered, unlike Taxotere®, in the beagle dog study. Based on these results, it is expected that Nanoxel-PM™ can reduce side effects of hypersensitivity reactions and fluid retention while retaining antitumor efficacy in cancer patients. Currently, Nanoxel-PM™ is under evaluation for bioequivalence with Taxotere® in a multi-center, open-label, randomized, crossover study.

Ionically fixed polymeric nanoparticles as a novel drug carrier.

PURPOSE: In this study, we have prepared a novel polymeric drug delivery system comprised of ionically fixed polymeric nanoparticles (IFPN) and investigated their potential as a drug carrier for the passive targeting of water-insoluble anticancer drugs. MATERIALS AND METHODS: For this purpose, the physicochemical characteristics of the IFPN were investigated by comparing them with conventional polymeric micelles. IFPN containing paclitaxel were prepared and evaluated for in vitro stability and in vivo pharmacokinetics. RESULTS: The IFPN were successfully fabricated using a monomethoxypolyethylene glycol-polylactide (mPEG-PLA) diblock copolymer and a sodium salt of D,L-poly(lactic acid) (D,L-PLACOONa) upon the addition of CaCl2. The transmittance of the IFPN solution was much lower than that of a polymeric micelle solution at the same polymer concentration implicating an increase in the number of appreciable particles. The particle size of the IFPN was approximately 20 approximately 30 nm which is in the range of particle sizes that facilitate sterile filtration using a membrane filter. The IFPN also have a regular spherical shape with a narrow size distribution. The zeta potential of the IFPN was almost neutral, similar to that of the polymeric micelles. In contrast, mixed micelles with a combination of mPEG-PLA and D,L-PLACOONa prior to the addition of Ca2+ showed a negative charge (-17 mV), possibly due to the carboxyl anion of polylactic acid exposed on the surface of the micelles. The IFPN formulation was highly kinetically stable in aqueous medium compared to the polymeric micelle formulation. The molecular weight of D,L-PLACOONa in the IFPN and the mPEG-PLA/D,L-PLACOONa molar ratio had a great influence upon the kinetic stability of the IFPN. Pharmacokinetic studies showed that the area under the concentration vs time curve (AUC) of IFPN in blood was statistically higher (about two times) when compared with that of Cremophor EL-based formulation (Taxol equivalent) or polymeric micelle formulation. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggests that the IFPN were retained in the circulation long enough to play a significant role as a drug carrier in the bloodstream, possibly resulting in improved therapeutic efficiency. Therefore, the IFPN are expected to be a promising novel polymeric nanoparticulate system for passive tumor targeting of water-insoluble anticancer drugs including paclitaxel.

A mixed polymeric micellar formulation of itraconazole: Characteristics, toxicity and pharmacokinetics.

A mixed polymeric micelle formulation of itraconazole (ITZ-PM) was prepared using monomethoxy poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(lactic acid) and poly(lactic acid) as drug carrier materials. The ITZ-PM formulation remarkably increased the itraconazole solubility up to 15 mg/mL in aqueous media and provided stable solutions at a wide range of concentrations and pH's. In toxicity studies of single and 28-day repeated administrations to rats and dogs, ITZ-PM was well tolerated at dose levels corresponding to clinical doses. The pharmacokinetic profiles of ITZ-PM for itraconazole and its major metabolite, hydroxy-itraconazole, were comparable to those of the cyclodextrin formulations (Sporanox(R) Injection and Oral Solution) in rats and dogs. These results suggest that ITZ-PM can be an advantageous formulation for both intravenous and oral routes.

A polymeric nanoparticle consisting of mPEG-PLA-Toco and PLMA-COONa as a drug carrier: improvements in cellular uptake and biodistribution.

PURPOSE: To evaluate a new polymeric nanoparticulate drug delivery formulation that consists of two components: i) an amphiphilic diblock copolymer having tocopherol moiety at the end of the hydrophobic block in which the hydrophobic tocopherol moiety increases stability of hydrophobic core of the nanoparticle in aqueous medium; and ii) a biodegradable copolyester having carboxylate end group that is capable of forming ionic complex with positively charged compounds such as doxorubicin. METHODS: A doxourubicin-loaded polymeric nanoparticle (Dox-PNP) was prepared by solvent evaporation method. The entrapment efficiency, size distribution, and in vitro release profile at various pH conditions were characterized. In vitro cellular uptake was investigated by confocal microscopy, flow cytometry, and MTT assay using drug-sensitive and drug-resistant cell lines. Pharmacokinetics and biodistribution were evaluated in rats and tumor-bearing mice. RESULTS: Doxorubicin (Dox) was efficiently loaded into the PNP (higher than 95% of entrapment efficiency), and the diameter of Dox-PNP was in the range 20-25 nm with a narrow size distribution. In Vitro study showed that Dox-PNP exhibited higher cellular uptake into both human breast cancer cell (MCF-7) and human uterine cancer cell (MES-SA) than free doxorubicin solution (Free-Dox), especially into drug-resistant cells (MCF-7/ADR and MES-SA/Dx-5). In pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution study, the bioavailability of Dox-PNP calculated from the area under the blood concentration-time curve (AUC) was 69.8 times higher than that of Free-Dox in rats, and Dox-PNP exhibited 2 times higher bioavailability in tumor tissue of tumor-bearing mice. CONCLUSIONS: Dox-PNP exhibited enhanced cellular uptake of the drug. In the cytotoxic activity study, this improved cellular uptake was proved to be more advantageous in drug-resistant cell. Dox-PNP exhibited much higher bioavailability in blood plasma and more drug accumulation in tumor tissue than conventional doxorubicin formulation. The results of this study suggest that the PNP system is an advantageous carrier for drug delivery.

A high-throughput combinatorial approach for the discovery of a cremophor EL-free paclitaxel formulation.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this work was to replace Cremophor-EL in the commercial paclitaxel intravenous formulation, Taxol, using a novel high-throughput combinatorial formulation approach. METHODS: Full factorial combinations of 12 generally regarded as safe excipients at three different concentrations were screened using an automated liquid dispenser. The hit formulations were further optimized to give the final optimized formulation TPI-1. TPI-1 was then tested in rats to compare its pharmacokinetic profile to Taxol. RESULTS: Of the 9,880 combinations tested in the initial screen, 19 were identified as hit combinations. These were further optimized to give the final formulation TPI-1. When tested in rats, TPI-1 was well tolerated at both the low and high doses of 5 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg, whereas Taxol killed all the rats at the high dose. TPI-1 experienced slower elimination compared to Taxol. Similar to Taxol, TPI-1 also exhibited nonlinear pharmacokinetics. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrated the power of a high-throughput combinatorial approach for alternative paclitaxel formulations. We believe that this approach can be applied to drug formulation in general and it can improve the speed and efficiency of drug formulation design.