A New Equation for Calculation of Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol in Patients With Normolipidemia and/or Hypertriglyceridemia.

Importance: Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), a key cardiovascular disease marker, is often estimated by the Friedewald or Martin equation, but calculating LDL-C is less accurate in patients with a low LDL-C level or hypertriglyceridemia (triglyceride [TG] levels ≥400 mg/dL). Objective: To design a more accurate LDL-C equation for patients with a low LDL-C level and/or hypertriglyceridemia. Design, Setting, and Participants: Data on LDL-C levels and other lipid measures from 8656 patients seen at the National Institutes of Health Clinical Center between January 1, 1976, and June 2, 1999, were analyzed by the ß-quantification reference method (18 715 LDL-C test results) and were randomly divided into equally sized training and validation data sets. Using TG and non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol as independent variables, multiple least squares regression was used to develop an equation for very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, which was then used in a second equation for LDL-C. Equations were tested against the internal validation data set and multiple external data sets of either ß-quantification LDL-C results (n = 28 891) or direct LDL-C test results (n = 252 888). Statistical analysis was performed from August 7, 2018, to July 18, 2019. Main Outcomes and Measures: Concordance between calculated and measured LDL-C levels by ß-quantification, as assessed by various measures of test accuracy (correlation coefficient [R2], root mean square error [RMSE], mean absolute difference [MAD]), and percentage of patients misclassified at LDL-C treatment thresholds of 70, 100, and 190 mg/dL. Results: Compared with ß-quantification, the new equation was more accurate than other LDL-C equations (slope, 0.964; RMSE = 15.2 mg/dL; R2 = 0.9648; vs Friedewald equation: slope, 1.056; RMSE = 32 mg/dL; R2 = 0.8808; vs Martin equation: slope, 0.945; RMSE = 25.7 mg/dL; R2 = 0.9022), particularly for patients with hypertriglyceridemia (MAD = 24.9 mg/dL; vs Friedewald equation: MAD = 56.4 mg/dL; vs Martin equation: MAD = 44.8 mg/dL). The new equation calculates the LDL-C level in patients with TG levels up to 800 mg/dL as accurately as the Friedewald equation does for TG levels less than 400 mg/dL and was associated with 35% fewer misclassifications when patients with hypertriglyceridemia (TG levels, 400-800 mg/dL) were categorized into different LDL-C treatment groups. Conclusions and Relevance: The new equation can be readily implemented by clinical laboratories with no additional costs compared with the standard lipid panel. It will allow for more accurate calculation of LDL-C level in patients with low LDL-C levels and/or hypertriglyceridemia (TG levels, ≤800 mg/dL) and thus should improve the use of LDL-C level in cardiovascular disease risk management.

SCARB1 Gene Variants Are Associated With the Phenotype of Combined High High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol and High Lipoprotein (a).

BACKGROUND: SR-B1 (scavenger receptor class B type 1), encoded by the gene SCARB1, is a lipoprotein receptor that binds both high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and low-density lipoprotein. We reported that SR-B1 is also a receptor for lipoprotein (a) (Lp(a)), mediating cellular uptake of Lp(a) in vitro and promoting clearance of Lp(a) in vivo. Although genetic variants in SCARB1 are associated with variations in HDL level, no SCARB1 variants affecting Lp(a) have been reported. METHODS AND RESULTS: In an index subject with high levels of HDL cholesterol and Lp(a), SCARB1 was sequenced and demonstrated a missense mutation resulting in an S129L substitution in exon 3. To follow up, 2 cohorts (GeneSTAR, the family-based Genetic Study of Atherosclerosis Risk [n=543], and CCHS, the population-based Copenhagen City Heart Study [n=5835]) were screened for combined HDL cholesterol and Lp(a) elevations. Subjects with the extreme phenotype (HDL >80 mg/dL and Lp(a) >100 nmol/L in GeneSTAR, n=8, and >100 mg/dL in CCHS, n=9) underwent sequencing of SCARB1 exons; 15 of 18 from the combined population demonstrated genetic variants, including rare or uncommon missense or splice site mutations in 9 and homozygous synonymous variants in 6. Functional studies with 4 of the SCARB1 variants (c.386C>T, c.631-14T>G, c.4G>A, and c.631-53mC>T & c.726+55mCG>CA) showed decreased receptor function in vitro. CONCLUSIONS: Human SCARB1 gene variants are associated with a new lipid phenotype, characterized by high levels of both HDL cholesterol and Lp(a). SCARB1 exonic variants often result in diminished function of translated SR-B1 via reduced binding/intracellular transport of Lp(a).

Association of apolipoprotein B and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy-derived LDL particle number with outcomes in 25 clinical studies: assessment by the AACC Lipoprotein and Vascular Diseases Division Working Group on Best Practices.

BACKGROUND: The number of circulating LDL particles is a strong indicator of future cardiovascular disease (CVD) events, even superior to the concentration of LDL cholesterol. Atherogenic (primarily LDL) particle number is typically determined either directly by the serum concentration of apolipoprotein B (apo B) or indirectly by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy of serum to obtain NMR-derived LDL particle number (LDL-P). CONTENT: To assess the comparability of apo B and LDL-P, we reviewed 25 clinical studies containing 85 outcomes for which both biomarkers were determined. In 21 of 25 (84.0%) studies, both apo B and LDL-P were significant for at least 1 outcome. Neither was significant for any outcome in only 1 study (4.0%). In 50 of 85 comparisons (58.8%), both apo B and LDL-P had statistically significant associations with the clinical outcome, whereas in 17 comparisons (20.0%) neither was significantly associated with the outcome. In 18 comparisons (21.1%) there was discordance between apo B and LDL-P. CONCLUSIONS: In most studies, both apo B and LDL-P were comparable in association with clinical outcomes. The biomarkers were nearly equivalent in their ability to assess risk for CVD and both have consistently been shown to be stronger risk factors than LDL-C. We support the adoption of apo B and/or LDL-P as indicators of atherogenic particle numbers into CVD risk screening and treatment guidelines. Currently, in the opinion of this Working Group on Best Practices, apo B appears to be the preferable biomarker for guideline adoption because of its availability, scalability, standardization, and relatively low cost.

High-density lipoprotein cholesterol efflux, nitration of apolipoprotein A-I, and endothelial function in obese women.

Subjects at risk of atherosclerosis might have dysfunctional high-density lipoprotein (HDL) despite normal cholesterol content in the plasma. We considered whether the efflux of excess cellular cholesterol to HDL from obese subjects is associated with impaired arterial endothelial function, a biomarker of cardiovascular risk. A total of 54 overweight (body mass index [BMI] 25 to 29.9 kg/m(2)) or obese (BMI ≥30 kg/m(2)) women, aged 46 ± 11 years, were enrolled in a worksite wellness program. The HDL cholesterol averaged 57 ± 17 mg/dl and was inversely associated with the BMI (r = -0.419, p = 0.002). Endothelial function was assessed using brachial artery flow-mediated dilation. Cholesterol efflux from (3)H-cholesterol-labeled baby hamster kidney cells transfected with the adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette transporter 1 showed 8.2% to 22.5% cholesterol efflux within 18 hours when incubated with 1% serum and was positively correlated with brachial artery flow-mediated dilation (p <0.05), especially in the 34 subjects with BMI ≥30 kg/m(2) (r = 0.482, p = 0.004). This relation was independent of age, HDL or low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations in plasma, blood pressure, or insulin resistance on stepwise multiple regression analysis (ß = 0.31, R(2) = 0.21, p = 0.007). Nitration of apolipoprotein A-I tyrosine residues (using sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) was significantly greater in women with a BMI ≥30 kg/m(2) and the lowest cholesterol efflux than in women with a BMI of 25 to 29.9 kg/m(2) and the greatest cholesterol efflux (p = 0.01). In conclusion, we have shown that decreased cholesterol efflux by way of the adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette transporter 1 is associated with increased nitration of apolipoprotein A-I in HDL and is an independent predictor of impaired endothelial function in women with a BMI of ≥30 kg/m(2). This finding suggests that the functional measures of HDL might be better markers for cardiovascular risk than the HDL cholesterol levels in this population.

Genetic variation in liver X receptor alpha and risk of ischemic vascular disease in the general population.

OBJECTIVE: Although animal studies indicate that liver X receptor alpha (LXRα) might influence risk of atherosclerosis, data in humans remain scarce. We tested the hypothesis that genetic variation in LXRα associates with risk of ischemic vascular disease and/or plasma lipid and lipoprotein levels in the general population. METHODS AND RESULTS: We studied 10,281 white persons of Danish ancestry from a general population cohort, including 1,986 in whom ischemic heart disease (IHD) developed, and 989 in whom ischemic cerebrovascular disease developed. We examined another 51,429 white persons of Danish ancestry from a general population study, including 3,789 with IHD. We genotyped 10 genetic variants identified by resequencing LXRα. Homozygosity for -840AA/-115AA(=2.7%) predicted hazard ratios of 1.3 (95% confidence interval, 1.0-1.7) for IHD, 1.6 (1.2-2.2) for myocardial infarction, and 1.7 (1.3-2.4) for ischemic cerebrovascular disease. The corresponding odds ratios in the second cohort were 1.1 (0.9-1.4) for IHD and 1.5 (1.1-2.0) for myocardial infarction. In the combined studies, odds ratios were 1.2 (1.0-1.4) for IHD and 1.5 (1.2-1.9) for myocardial infarction. Homozygosity for -840AA/-115AA did not associate with lipid or lipoprotein levels. LXRα -1830T>C (tagging the haplotype -1830C/-840A/-115A, all r(2)≥0.97) associated with 91% increased transcriptional activity. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that functional genetic variation in LXRα predicts risk of ischemic vascular disease in the general population.

S1P, dihydro-S1P and C24:1-ceramide levels in the HDL-containing fraction of serum inversely correlate with occurrence of ischemic heart disease.

BACKGROUND: The lysosphingolipid sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) is carried in the blood in association with lipoproteins, predominantly high density lipoproteins (HDL). Emerging evidence suggests that many of the effects of HDL on cardiovascular function may be attributable to its S1P cargo. METHODS: Here we have evaluated how levels of S1P and related sphingolipids in an HDL-containing fraction of human serum correlate with occurrence of ischemic heart disease (IHD). To accomplish this we used liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry to measure S1P levels in the HDL-containing fraction of serum (depleted of LDL and VLDL) from 204 subjects in the Copenhagen City Heart Study (CCHS). The study group consisted of individuals having high serum HDL cholesterol (HDL-C) (females:≥ 73.5 mg/dL; males:≥ 61.9 mg/dL) and verified IHD; subjects with high HDL-C and no IHD; individuals with low HDL-C (females:≤ 38.7 mg/dL; males:≤ 34.1 mg/dL) and IHD, and subjects with low HDL-C and no IHD. RESULTS: The results show a highly significant inverse relationship between the level of S1P in the HDL-containing fraction of serum and the occurrence of IHD. Furthermore, an inverse relationship with IHD was also observed for two other sphingolipids, dihydro-S1P and C24:1-ceramide, in the HDL-containing fraction of serum. Additionally, we demonstrated that the amount of S1P on HDL correlates with the magnitude of HDL-induced endothelial cell barrier signaling. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that compositional differences of sphingolipids in the HDL-containing fraction of human serum are related to the occurrence of IHD, and may contribute to the putative protective role of HDL in IHD.

High pre-beta1 HDL concentrations and low lecithin: cholesterol acyltransferase activities are strong positive risk markers for ischemic heart disease and independent of HDL-cholesterol.

BACKGROUND: We hypothesized that patients with high HDL-cholesterol (HDL-C) and ischemic heart disease (IHD) may have dysfunctional HDL or unrecognized nonconventional risk factors. METHODS: Individuals with IHD (Copenhagen University Hospital) and either high HDL-C (n = 53; women >or=735 mg/L; men >or=619 mg/L) or low HDL-C (n = 42; women

Structure/function relationships of apolipoprotein a-I mimetic peptides: implications for antiatherogenic activities of high-density lipoprotein.

RATIONALE: Apolipoprotein (apoA)-I mimetic peptides are a promising type of anti-atherosclerosis therapy, but how the structural features of these peptides relate to the multiple antiatherogenic functions of HDL is poorly understood. OBJECTIVE: To establish structure/function relationships of apoA-I mimetic peptides with their antiatherogenic functions. METHODS AND RESULTS: Twenty-two bihelical apoA-I mimetic peptides were investigated in vitro for the capacity and specificity of cholesterol efflux, inhibition of inflammatory response of monocytes and endothelial cells, and inhibition of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation. It was found that mean hydrophobicity, charge, size of hydrophobic face, and angle of the link between the helices are the major factors determining the efficiency and specificity of cholesterol efflux. The peptide with optimal parameters was more effective and specific toward cholesterol efflux than human apoA-I. Charge and size of hydrophobic face were also the major factors affecting antiinflammatory properties, and the presence of cysteine and histidine residues was the main factor determining antioxidant properties. There was no significant correlation between capacities of the peptides to support individual functions; each function had its own optimal set of features. CONCLUSIONS: None of the peptides was equally effective in all the antiatherogenic functions tested, suggesting that different functions of HDL may have different mechanisms and different structural requirements. The results do suggest, however, that rationalizing the design of apoA-I mimetic peptides may improve their therapeutic value and may lead to a better understanding of mechanisms of various antiatherogenic functions of HDL.

Effect of ACE insertion/deletion and 12 other polymorphisms on clinical outcomes and response to treatment in the LIFE study.

OBJECTIVE: This pharmacogenetics substudy from the Losartan Intervention for Endpoint reduction in Hypertension study in patients with hypertension and left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) treated with the angiotensin receptor blocker losartan versus the beta-blocker atenolol for 4.8 years tested whether the insertion/deletion (I/D) polymorphism of the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) gene and 12 other previously well-characterized polymorphisms of hypertension susceptibility genes affected blood pressure reduction, heart rate reduction, cardiovascular events, and/or response to treatment. These polymorphisms were chosen because they could affect blood pressure control or the pharmacological action of losartan or atenolol. METHODS: We genotyped 3503 patients, 1774 on losartan and 1729 on atenolol. RESULTS: ACE and the 12 other genotypes did not affect the reduction in systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, pulse pressure, mean arterial pressure, or heart rate, or treatment differences between losartan and atenolol on these endpoints, as assessed by general linear models. Also, ACE and the 12 other genotypes did not affect risk of the primary composite endpoint or its components stroke, myocardial infarction, and cardiovascular death, or treatment differences between losartan and atenolol on these endpoints, as assessed by Cox proportional hazards models including baseline Framingham risk score and LVH. CONCLUSION: ACE insertion/deletion and 12 other polymorphisms of hypertension susceptibility genes did not affect blood pressure reduction, heart rate reduction, or cardiovascular events in patients with hypertension and LVH, or treatment differences between losartan and atenolol on these endpoints. These results suggest that the observed effects of losartan versus atenolol in the Losartan Intervention for Endpoint reduction in hypertension study do not depend on ACE and 12 other polymorphisms of hypertension susceptibility genes.

Lecithin: cholesterol acyltransferase--from biochemistry to role in cardiovascular disease.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: We discuss the latest findings on the biochemistry of lecithin : cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), the effect of LCAT on atherosclerosis, clinical features of LCAT deficiency, and the impact of LCAT on cardiovascular disease from human studies. RECENT FINDINGS: Although there has been much recent progress in the biochemistry of LCAT and its effect on high-density lipoprotein metabolism, its role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis is still not fully understood. Studies from various animal models have revealed a complex interaction between LCAT and atherosclerosis that may be modified by diet and by other proteins that modify lipoproteins. Furthermore, the ability of LCAT to lower apoB appears to be the best way to predict its effect on atherosclerosis in animal models. Recent studies on patients with LCAT deficiency have shown a modest but significant increase in incidence of cardiovascular disease consistent with a beneficial effect of LCAT on atherosclerosis. The role of LCAT in the general population, however, has not revealed a consistent association with cardiovascular disease. SUMMARY: Recent research findings from animal and human studies have revealed a potential beneficial role of LCAT in reducing atherosclerosis but additional studies are necessary to better establish the linkage between LCAT and cardiovascular disease.

Apolipoprotein B and cardiovascular disease risk: position statement from the AACC Lipoproteins and Vascular Diseases Division Working Group on Best Practices.

BACKGROUND: Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) has been the cornerstone measurement for assessing cardiovascular risk for nearly 20 years. CONTENT: Recent data demonstrate that apolipoprotein B (apo B) is a better measure of circulating LDL particle number (LDL-P) concentration and is a more reliable indicator of risk than LDL-C, and there is growing support for the idea that addition of apo B measurement to the routine lipid panel for assessing and monitoring patients at risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD) would enhance patient management. In this report, we review the studies of apo B and LDL-P reported to date, discuss potential advantages of their measurement over that of LDL-C, and present information related to standardization. CONCLUSIONS: In line with recently adopted Canadian guidelines, the addition of apo B represents a logical next step to National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III (NCEP ATPIII) and other guidelines in the US. Considering that it has taken years to educate physicians and patients regarding the use of LDL-C, changing perceptions and practices will not be easy. Thus, it appears prudent to consider using apo B along with LDL-C to assess LDL-related risk for an interim period until the superiority of apo B is generally recognized.

Asymmetry in the lipid affinity of bihelical amphipathic peptides. A structural determinant for the specificity of ABCA1-dependent cholesterol efflux by peptides.

ApoA-I contains a tandem array of amphipathic helices with varying lipid affinity, which are critical in its ability to bind and remove lipids from cells by the ABCA1 transporter. In this study, the effect of asymmetry in the lipid affinity of amphipathic helices in a bihelical apoA-I mimetic peptide, 37pA, on lipid efflux by the ABCA1 transporter was examined. Seven peptide variants of 37pA were produced by substituting a varying number of hydrophobic amino acids for alanine on either one or both helices. The 5A peptide with five alanine substitutions in the second helix had decreased helical content compared with 37pA (5A, 12+/-1% helicity; 37pA, 28+/-2% helicity) and showed less self-association but, similar to the parent peptide, was able to readily solubilize phospholipid vesicles. Furthermore, 5A, unlike the parent peptide 37pA, was not hemolytic (37pA, 27+/-2% RBC lysis, 2 h, 18 microm). Finally, the 5A peptide stimulated cholesterol and phospholipid efflux by the ABCA1 transporter with higher specificity (ABCA1-transfected versus untransfected cells) than 37pA (5A, 9.7+/-0.77%, 18 h, 18 microm versus 1.5+/-0.27%, 18 h, 18 microm (p<0.0001); 37pA, 7.4+/-0.85%, 18 h, 18 microm versus 5.8+/-0.20%, 18 h, 18 microm (p=0.03)). In summary, we describe a novel bihelical peptide with asymmetry in the lipid affinity of its helices and properties similar to apoA-I in terms of specificity for cholesterol efflux by the ABCA1 transporter and low cytotoxicity.

Association of loss-of-function mutations in the ABCA1 gene with high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and risk of ischemic heart disease.

CONTEXT: Low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol are inversely related to cardiovascular risk. Whether this is a causal effect is unclear. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether genetically reduced HDL cholesterol due to heterozygosity for 4 loss-of-function mutations in ABCA1 cause increased risk of ischemic heart disease (IHD). DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Three studies of white individuals from Copenhagen, Denmark, were used: the Copenhagen City Heart Study (CCHS), a 31-year prospective general population study (n = 9022; 28 heterozygotes); the Copenhagen General Population Study (CGPS), a cross-sectional general population study (n = 31,241; 76 heterozygotes); and the Copenhagen Ischemic Heart Disease Study (CIHDS), a case-control study (n = 16,623; 44 heterozygotes). End points in all 3 studies were recorded during the period of January 1, 1976, through July 9, 2007. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Levels of HDL cholesterol in the general population, cellular cholesterol efflux, and the association between IHD and HDL cholesterol and genotype. RESULTS: Heterozygotes vs noncarriers for 4 ABCA1 mutations (P1065S, G1216V, N1800H, R2144X) had HDL cholesterol levels of 41 mg/dL (interquartile range, 31-50 mg/dL) vs 58 mg/dL (interquartile range, 46-73 mg/dL), corresponding to a reduction in HDL cholesterol of 17 mg/dL (P < .001). A 17-mg/dL lower HDL cholesterol level in the CCHS was associated with a multifactorially adjusted hazard ratio for IHD of 1.70 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.57-1.85). However, for IHD in heterozygotes vs noncarriers, the multifactorially adjusted hazard ratio was 0.67 (95% CI, 0.28-1.61; 1741 IHD events) in the CCHS, the multifactorially adjusted odds ratio was 0.82 (95% CI, 0.34-1.96; 2427 IHD events) in the CGPS, and the multifactorially adjusted odds ratio was 0.86 (95% CI, 0.32-2.32; 2498 IHD cases) in the CIHDS. The corresponding odds ratio for IHD in heterozygotes vs noncarriers for the combined studies (n = 41,961; 6666 cases; 109 heterozygotes) was 0.93 (95% CI, 0.53-1.62). CONCLUSION: Lower plasma levels of HDL cholesterol due to heterozygosity for loss-of-function mutations in ABCA1 were not associated with an increased risk of IHD.

Angiotensinogen and ACE gene polymorphisms and risk of atrial fibrillation in the general population.

OBJECTIVES: The renin-angiotensin system may play a role in the pathogenesis of atrial fibrillation, and renin-angiotensin system blockers reduce the risk of atrial fibrillation. We hypothesized that polymorphisms in the angiotensinogen and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) genes encoding proteins in this system predict risk of atrial fibrillation. METHODS AND RESULTS: We genotyped 9235 individuals from the Danish general population, The Copenhagen City Heart Study, for the a-20c, g-6a, T174M, and M235T polymorphisms in the angiotensinogen gene and the insertion/deletion (I/D) polymorphism in the ACE gene; rare allele frequencies were 0.16, 0.40, 0.12, 0.41, and 0.49, respectively. Participants had sinus rhythm at inclusion. During 26 years of follow-up, 968 individuals developed atrial fibrillation. Multifactorially adjusted hazard ratios for atrial fibrillation for a-20c ac and cc versus aa genotype were 1.1(95% confidence interval: 1.0-1.3; P=0.05) and 1.5(1.1-2.1; P=0.01). Compared with double noncarriers (angiotensinogen -20aa and ACE II), double heterozygotes (ac-I/D genotype), and double homozygotes (cc-DD) had hazard ratios for atrial fibrillation of 1.2(0.9-1.6; P=0.06) and 2.4(1.4-4.1; P=0.001). a-20c cc homozygotes above 70 years of age who were overweight, severely hypertensive, and had heart failure, had an absolute 10-year risk of atrial fibrillation of 61%. CONCLUSION: Angiotensinogen a-20c genotype alone and in combination with ACE I/D genotype predicts an increased risk of atrial fibrillation. Therefore, genetic variation in the renin-angiotensin system may influence effect of renin-angiotensin system blockers on atrial fibrillation.

Genetic variation and activity of the renin-angiotensin system and severe hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetes.

BACKGROUND: The deletion-allele of the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) gene and elevated ACE activity are associated with increased risk of severe hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetes. We explored whether genetic and phenotypic variations in other components of the renin-angiotensin system are similarly associated. METHODS: Episodes of severe hypoglycemia were recorded in 171 consecutive type 1 diabetic outpatients during a 1-year follow-up. Participants were characterized at baseline by gene polymorphisms in angiotensinogen, ACE, angiotensin-II receptor types 1 (AT1R) and 2 (AT2R), and by plasma angiotensinogen concentration and serum ACE activity. RESULTS: Three risk factors for severe hypoglycemia were identified: plasma angiotensinogen concentration in the upper quartile (relative rate [RR] vs. lower quartile 3.1, 95% confidence interval [CI,] 1.4-6.8), serum ACE activity in the upper quartile (RR vs. lower quartile 2.9, 95% CI, 1.3-6.2), and homo- or hemizygosity for the A-allele of the X chromosome-located AT2R 1675G/A polymorphism (RR vs. noncarriers 2.5, 95% CI, 1.4-5.0). The three risk factors contributed independently to prediction of severe hypoglycemia. A backward multiple regression analysis identified a high number of renin-angiotensin system-related risk factors and reduced ability to perceive hypoglycemic warning symptoms (impaired hypoglycemia awareness) as predictors of severe hypoglycemia. CONCLUSIONS: High renin-angiotensin system activity and the A-allele of the AT2R 1675G/A polymorphism associate with high risk of severe hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetes. A potential preventive effect of renin-angiotensin system blocking drugs in patients with recurrent severe hypoglycemia merits further investigation.

Apolipoprotein AI mimetic peptides: possible new agents for the treatment of atherosclerosis.

There is increasing evidence that therapeutic agents for raising HDL would be a useful addition to the current treatment approach for preventing coronary heart disease (CHD), especially considering the fact that therapies for lowering LDLs are not fully adequate for preventing CHD. The recent unraveling of some of the complexities of HDL metabolism has led to the identification of new key proteins involved in HDL metabolism, thus giving new hope and ideas for drug targets. This review focuses on apolipoprotein AI mimetic peptides, which are currently being explored as therapeutic agents for a new treatment strategy known as acute HDL therapy.

164Ile allele in the beta2-Adrenergic receptor gene is associated with risk of elevated blood pressure in women. The Copenhagen City Heart Study.

OBJECTIVE: Since beta2-adrenergic receptors are important regulators of blood pressure, genetic variation in this receptor could explain risk of elevated blood pressure in selected individuals. We tested the hypothesis that Gly16Arg, Gln27Glu, and Thr164Ile in the beta2-adrenergic receptor gene associated with elevated blood pressure. METHODS: We genotyped 9185 individuals from the adult Danish general population. RESULTS: Allele frequencies of 16Arg, 27Glu, and 164Ile were 0.38, 0.44, and 0.01, respectively. Among women never treated with antihypertensive medication those heterozygous for Thr164Ile versus non-carriers had increased diastolic blood pressure (P=0.02). Women heterozygous for Thr164Ile versus non-carriers had an odds ratio for elevated blood pressure of 1.93 (95% CI: 1.30-2.86). Finally, women double heterozygous for Thr164Ile and Gln27Glu or Gly16Arg versus non-carriers at all 3 loci had an odds ratio for elevated blood pressure of 2.49 (1.28-4.85) or 3.19 (1.46-6.97). In men, blood pressure was not influenced by this genetic variation. CONCLUSION: In women Thr164Ile heterozygosity is associated with increased diastolic blood pressure, and represent a risk factor for elevated blood pressure in women in the general population. This was most pronounced in those women also heterozygous for Gln27Glu or Gly16Arg.