Beyond the concrete jungle: The value of urban biodiversity for regional conservation efforts.

Urbanization deletes and degrades natural ecosystems, contributing to the ongoing biodiversity crisis. Yet, on the local scale, well-managed cities can host significant biodiversity, including endemic and threatened species. Understanding the trade-off between local and regional biodiversity outcomes is limited, primarily due to the lack of comprehensive sampling across heterogeneous urban areas and adjacent regions. To address this knowledge gap and assess urban areas' value for conserving the regional species pool, we conducted an extensive bird survey across an urbanized metropolitan area and its surrounding region (>300 km²). The survey included 11 cities, 24 rural settlements, agricultural areas, and natural habitats, employing high-resolution geographic data (e.g., 3D vegetation layer) to examine land cover effects on α- and ß-diversity metrics. Our findings reveal that urban avian diversity can surpass adjacent non-urban areas, with urban green spaces among the most species-rich habitats. Most regional bird species did not avoid urban areas, indicating their significant potential for regional conservation, particularly in human-dominated areas. Across the region, avian communities were highly heterogeneous, driven by species turnover rather than loss, highlighting urban biodiversity complexity. However, factors associated with urbanization negatively affected both α- and ß-diversity, with synanthropic species most prevalent in urban habitats. Our findings suggest that strategic urban planning, focusing on compact development and accommodating non-synanthropic species in green spaces, can significantly contribute to regional conservation efforts.

A framework for understanding the human experience of nature through cognitive mapping.

Human behavior is a key driver of the biodiversity crisis, and addressing it requires changing individual choices and actions. Yet, the same processes that imperil biodiversity (e.g., urbanization) also alienate people from the experience of nature, eroding care for the natural world. Although averting this extinction of experience is increasingly recognized as a major contemporary conservation challenge, understanding of what constitutes nature experience remains elusive and few empirical studies have explored it directly. Most researchers have used nature interactions as a stand-in for experience, even though experience extends beyond interactions. We aimed to determine what constitutes the experience of nature and to propose a holistic, empirically derived framework that incorporates the multiple dimensions and components of the experience of nature. Using a mixed-method approach across 3 countries (the United States, Switzerland, and Israel), we conducted a multistage, conceptual content, cognitive mapping (3CM) exercise with 106 participants. This methodology included developing a prompt to capture participants' perceptions of nature experiences and subsequently refining and organizing their input into distinct components and underlying dimensions through an iterative engagement process. Beyond multisensory interactions with nature, experience of nature consisted of 2 dimensions: the circumstances in which interactions occur and the internal responses that encompass various cognitive, affective, and restorative benefits associated with nature interactions. These 3 dimensions had 33 components that occurred consistently across participants in the 3 countries. Frequently mentioned components included seeing animals, landscapes, or scenery; lack of human influence; weather conditions; relaxing, recharging; feeling good; and awe for nature. Fear and nature experienced at home were the least mentioned components. Together, our results showed that nature experience is a combination of nature interactions, circumstances, and internal responses. The emphasized components underscore the significance of offering access to extensive, less human-influenced natural spaces. This in turn can foster a profound nature experience, cultivating feelings of connectedness and care for nature.

Un marco de trabajo para entender la experiencia humana de la naturaleza a través del mapeo cognitivo Resumen El comportamiento humano es un factor clave en la crisis de la biodiversidad, por lo que abordarlo requiere cambios en las acciones y elecciones individuales. Aun así, los mismos procesos que ponen en peligro la biodiversidad (p. ej.: la urbanización) también alejan a las personas de experimentar la naturaleza, lo que disminuye el cuidado por la naturaleza. Aunque cada vez se reconoce más que evitar la extinción de las experiencias es un reto importante para la conservación, todavía no está claro qué constituye una experiencia de la naturaleza y pocos estudios empíricos lo han estudiado directamente. La mayoría de los investigadores ha usado las interacciones con la naturaleza como un sustituto para las experiencias, aunque éstas van más allá de las interacciones. Buscamos determinar qué constituye a las experiencias de la naturaleza y proponer un marco holístico y empírico que incorpore las múltiples dimensiones y componentes de la experiencia de la naturaleza. Usamos una estrategia de método mixto en tres países (EUA, Suiza e Israel) para realizar un ejercicio de un mapeo cognitivo de contenido conceptual en varias fases (3CM) con 106 participantes. Esta metodología incluyó el desarrollo de una entrada para capturar la percepción de los participantes con respecto a las experiencias de la naturaleza y con ello refinar y organizar sus contribuciones en diferentes componentes y dimensiones subyacentes por medio de un proceso iterativo de participación. Más allá de las interacciones multisensoriales con la naturaleza, las vivencias de la naturaleza consistieron en dos dimensiones: las circunstancias en las que ocurren las interacciones y las respuestas internas que engloban varios beneficios cognitivos, afectivos y restauradores asociados con las interacciones con la naturaleza. Estas dos dimensiones contaron con 33 componentes que aparecieron constantemente entre los participantes de los tres países. Con frecuencia mencionaron componentes que incluían avistamiento de animales o paisajes; la ausencia de influencia humana; las condiciones del clima; relajarse, recargarse; sentirse bien; y asombro por la naturaleza. El miedo y la naturaleza vivida en casa fueron los componentes menos mencionados. En conjunto, nuestros resultados mostraron que las vivencias de la naturaleza son una combinación de interacciones con la naturaleza, circunstancias y respuestas internas. Los componentes enfatizados resaltan la importancia de ofrecer acceso a los espacios naturales extensos con menos influencia humana. Esto a la vez puede promover una experiencia profunda de la naturaleza, lo que genera sentimientos de conexión y cuidado de la naturaleza.

Species and habitat specific changes in bird activity in an urban environment during Covid 19 lockdown.

Covid-19 lockdowns provided ecologists with a rare opportunity to examine how animals behave when humans are absent. Indeed many studies reported various effects of lockdowns on animal activity, especially in urban areas and other human-dominated habitats. We explored how Covid-19 lockdowns in Israel have influenced bird activity in an urban environment by using continuous acoustic recordings to monitor three common bird species that differ in their level of adaptation to the urban ecosystem: (1) the hooded crow, an urban exploiter, which depends heavily on anthropogenic resources; (2) the rose-ringed parakeet, an invasive alien species that has adapted to exploit human resources; and (3) the graceful prinia, an urban adapter, which is relatively shy of humans and can be found in urban habitats with shrubs and prairies. Acoustic recordings provided continuous monitoring of bird activity without an effect of the observer on the animal. We performed dense sampling of a 1.3 square km area in northern Tel-Aviv by placing 17 recorders for more than a month in different micro-habitats within this region including roads, residential areas and urban parks. We monitored both lockdown and no-lockdown periods. We portray a complex dynamic system where the activity of specific bird species depended on many environmental parameters and decreases or increases in a habitat-dependent manner during lockdown. Specifically, urban exploiter species decreased their activity in most urban habitats during lockdown, while human adapter species increased their activity during lockdown especially in parks where humans were absent. Our results also demonstrate the value of different habitats within urban environments for animal activity, specifically highlighting the importance of urban parks. These species- and habitat-specific changes in activity might explain the contradicting results reported by others who have not performed a habitat specific analysis.

Lockdowns due to the COVID-19 pandemic reduced human activity in early 2020, providing a rare opportunity to examine how wildlife behaves when humans are absent. While several studies reported increased abundance of animals in urban habitats, others cast doubt on these reports. Variation in study conclusions could be due to different species showing different levels of adaptation to human activity. Additionally, studies that rely on visually observing animals can impact their behavior and those based on public reporting may also have been influenced by changes in human activity. Therefore, it remained unclear whether COVID-19 lockdowns impacted wildlife and how this might differ among species. To quantify wildlife presence and activity during lockdown, Sun et al. placed recording devices in different urban environments, including roads, residential areas, and urban parks across Tel Aviv in Israel during early 2020. This allowed continuous monitoring of bird vocalizations during lockdown and non-lockdown periods and ensured the birds were not disturbed by human observers. Three common bird species, which each show different levels of adaptation to urban ecosystems, were monitored. The hooded crow, which depends heavily on human resources, and the rose-ringed parakeet, an invasive alien species which has adapted to exploit human resources, decreased their activity in most urban habitats during lockdowns. On the other hand, the graceful prinia, which has adapted to thrive in urban green spaces but is relatively shy of humans, showed increased activity, especially in parks where humans were absent. The findings of Sun et al. reveal that birds show species- and habitat-specific changes to their behavior as a result of decreased human activity. This might explain why previous studies ­ which did not perform habitat-specific analyses ­ gave conflicting reports of the impact of COVID-19 lockdowns on wildlife activity. The results also demonstrate the value of different habitats within urban environments for animal activity, specifically identifying the importance of urban parks. By highlighting the impact of human activity on urban wildlife, the findings provide a scientific basis for future conservation efforts.

Wildlife mortality risk posed by high and low traffic roads.

Wildlife mortality due to collisions with vehicles (roadkill) is one of the predominant negative effects exerted by roads on many wildlife species. Reducing roadkill is therefore a major component of wildlife conservation. Roadkill is affected by various factors, including road attributes and traffic volume. It is theorized that the effect of traffic volume on roadkill probability should be unimodal. However, empirical evidence for this theory is lacking. Using a large-scale roadkill database of 18 wildlife species in Israel, encompassing 2846 km of roads over 10 years, we explored the effects of traffic volume and road attributes (e.g., road lighting, verge vegetation) on roadkill probability with a multivariate generalized linear mixed model. A unimodal effect of traffic volume was identified for the striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena), whereas 5 species demonstrated a novel quadratic U-shaped effect (e.g., golden jackal [Canis aureus]). Four species showed a negative linear effect (e.g., wild boar [Sus scrofa]). We also identified varying effects of road attributes on roadkill. For instance, road lighting and roadside trees decreased roadkill for several species, whereas bus stops and concrete guardrails led to increased roadkill. The theorized unimodal effect of traffic volume may only apply to large, agile species, and the U-shaped effect could be related to intraspecies variability in traffic avoidance behavior. In general, we found that both high-traffic and low-traffic roads can pose a high mortality risk for wildlife. It is therefore important to monitor roadkill on low-traffic roads and adapt road attributes to mitigate roadkill. Road design for effective roadkill mitigation includes reducing the use of concrete guardrails and median barriers where possible and avoiding dense bushes in verge landscaping. These measures are complemented by employing wildlife detection systems, driver warnings, and seasonal speed reduction measures on low-traffic roads identified as roadkill hotspots.

Riesgo de mortalidad de fauna presentado por las carreteras de mucho y poco tráfico Denneboom et al. 23­229 Resumen La mortalidad de fauna por colisiones con vehículos es uno de los efectos negativos predominantes que tienen las carreteras sobre muchas especies. Por lo tanto, la reducción de esta mortalidad es un componente principal de la conservación de la fauna. Esta mortalidad se ve afectada por varios factores, incluyendo las características de la carretera y el volumen de tráfico. Se piensa que el efecto del volumen de tráfico sobre la probabilidad de las colisiones debería ser unimodal; sin embargo, la evidencia empírica para esta teoría no es suficiente. Usamos una base de datos de colisiones de 18 especies de fauna en Israel que engloba 2,846 km de carreteras durante diez años para explorar con un modelo mixto lineal generalizado multivariado los efectos del volumen de tráfico y las características de la carretera (p. ej., iluminación, vegetación de borde) sobre la probabilidad de colisiones. Identificamos un efecto unimodal del volumen del tráfico para la hiena rayada (Hyaena hyaena), mientras que cinco especies demostraron un efecto cuadrático novedoso en forma de U, como el chacal dorado (Canis aureus). Cuatro especies mostraron un efecto negativo lineal, como el jabalí salvaje (Sus scrofa). También identificamos varios efectos de las características de la carretera sobre las colisiones. Por ejemplo, la iluminación y los árboles en los bordes disminuyeron las colisiones para varias especies, mientras que las paradas de camión y los quitamiedos de concreto resultaron en un incremento de las colisiones. La teoría del efecto unimodal del volumen de tráfico podría aplicar sólo para especies grandes y ágiles, mientras que el efecto en forma de U podría relacionarse con la variabilidad de comportamiento para evitar colisiones que hay entre las especies. En general, descubrimos que tanto las carreteras con poco y mucho tráfico pueden representar un riesgo de mortalidad para la fauna. Por lo tanto, es importante monitorear las colisiones en las carreteras con poco tráfico y adaptar las características de la carretera para mitigar las colisiones. El diseño de las carreteras para una mitigación efectiva incluye reducir el uso de quitamiedos de concreto y barreras centrales en donde sea posible y evitar los arbustos densos en el paisajismo de los bordes. Estas medidas están complementadas con el uso de sistemas de detección de fauna, señalamientos para los conductores y medidas estacionales de reducción de la velocidad en las carreteras de poco tráfico identificadas como puntos calientes de colisiones.

Urbanisation generates multiple trait syndromes for terrestrial animal taxa worldwide.

Cities can host significant biological diversity. Yet, urbanisation leads to the loss of habitats, species, and functional groups. Understanding how multiple taxa respond to urbanisation globally is essential to promote and conserve biodiversity in cities. Using a dataset encompassing six terrestrial faunal taxa (amphibians, bats, bees, birds, carabid beetles and reptiles) across 379 cities on 6 continents, we show that urbanisation produces taxon-specific changes in trait composition, with traits related to reproductive strategy showing the strongest response. Our findings suggest that urbanisation results in four trait syndromes (mobile generalists, site specialists, central place foragers, and mobile specialists), with resources associated with reproduction and diet likely driving patterns in traits associated with mobility and body size. Functional diversity measures showed varied responses, leading to shifts in trait space likely driven by critical resource distribution and abundance, and taxon-specific trait syndromes. Maximising opportunities to support taxa with different urban trait syndromes should be pivotal in conservation and management programmes within and among cities. This will reduce the likelihood of biotic homogenisation and helps ensure that urban environments have the capacity to respond to future challenges. These actions are critical to reframe the role of cities in global biodiversity loss.

Impacts of nature deprivations during the COVID-19 pandemic: A pre-post comparison.

Nature provides a myriad of intangible and non-material services to people. However, urbanites are increasingly disconnected from the natural world. The consequences of this progressive disconnection from nature remain difficult to measure as this process is slow and long-term monitoring or large-scale manipulation on nature experiences are scarce. Measures to contain the spread of the recent COVID-19 pandemic (i.e., lockdowns) have potentially reduced or even suppressed nature experiences in cities. This situation provided an opportunity for conducting a longitudinal study that can serve as a sort of natural experiment to quantify the effects of nature deprivation on individuals' health, well-being and relationship to nature. We collected data on these variables from the same individuals inhabiting a large metropolis (Tel Aviv, Israel) twice, in 2018 (before) and during the lockdown in 2020. Our results confirmed that frequency, duration and quality of nature interactions dropped during the lockdown, while environmental attitudes and affinity towards nature remained similar. This was particularly true for people living in the least green neighborhoods, where a significant decrease in personal and social well-being was also found. Finally, affinity towards nature influenced well-being through nature experiences in 2018. The mediation effect was not significant in 2020, probably due to the decrease in nature experiences during the lockdown, but the direct relationship between affinity towards nature and well-being remained strong. These results provide insights into the means required to align the public health and conservation agendas to safeguard urbanites' health and well-being during a pandemic and mitigate the biodiversity crisis.

Factors influencing farmer and resident willingness to adopt an agri-environmental scheme in Israel.

Providing for growing food demand while minimizing environmental degradation is a major contemporary environmental challenge. Agri-environmental schemes (AESs) are often promoted to meet this challenge by providing subsidies to farmers who adopt agri-environmental practices (AEPs). The success of these schemes depends on the ability to engage farmers, thus understanding farmers' perceptions about AEPs is pivotal. Yet, current knowledge is limited as most research explores farmer's attitudes towards existing AESs, often based on subsidies. We explored the attitudes of farmers and their communities towards five different AEPs, and towards a potential AES, in an area of intensive agriculture in Israel, where currently no AES are implemented. We conducted five focus group sessions with 41 farmers, 12 follow-up interviews, and a survey with 296 community members. Findings indicate that farmers' willingness to implement AEPs was driven by environmental, personal, and social considerations, particularly perceptions of "good farming" practices, such as community cohesiveness and maintaining control of one's field. Farmers' lack of trust in the government, and lack of personal or local experience with specific AEPs, are other major barriers for joining a potential AES. Farmers perceived financial compensation as a safety net, but placed social and cultural values on par with, or above, financial considerations for joining an AES. Farmers' communities demonstrated high support for implementing AEPs, indicating that communities could be an asset for AES development. Therefore, while incentives for many AESs are based primarily on monetary compensation, to achieve their desired long-term results they should also focus on farmer resilience, independence, knowledge creation, and socio-cultural capital development.

Exploring biodiversity and users of campsites in desert nature reserves to balance between social values and ecological impacts.

Protected areas (PAs) are key conservation areas designed to limit the impacts of human activities on biodiversity. PAs also provide great opportunities for individuals to experience nature complexity, through recreational activities, and can contribute to restore the non-material and intangible services nature provides to people (i.e., cultural ecosystem services). However, recreational activities may negatively affect biodiversity. Identifying the right balance between promoting nature interactions and safeguarding biodiversity in PAs is challenging. Current knowledge gaps on the social value and ecological impacts of recreational activities, such as camping in PAs, hinder our ability to address this challenge. This is particularly true for PAs located in desert ecosystems. In this interdisciplinary study, we surveyed biodiversity and people to assess ecological impacts and social values of campsites in desert PAs in Israel. Ecological surveys included birds, plants, rodents and scorpions in campsites and control plots. We conducted two social surveys: (1) in situ survey of campsite users (N = 280) on satisfaction, motivations and perceptions of campsites and (2) online nation-wide survey (N = 322) on perceptions of campsites and investigation of the attributes individuals prioritize in campsites. Our results demonstrate that when desert campsites are located outside nature-rich areas (i.e. the wadis), they have relatively moderate negative impact on biodiversity for three out of the four taxa studied (birds, scorpions and rodents). Bird communities were dominated by synanthropic species in high intensity campsites. Surprisingly, even when campsites were located in nature-poor areas, users' satisfaction was relatively high. Among the broader population, ecological quality (i.e. vegetation complexity) did not have strong influence on people's preferences of/for campsites, and comfort-related aspects were prioritized over vegetation in campsites. Overall, our results demonstrate that placing desert campsites outside ecologically rich areas can serve as optimal solution to balance impacts on biodiversity and social value of recreation activities in PAs.

Addressing behavior in pollinator conservation policies to combat the implementation gap.

Solutions for conserving biodiversity lie in changing people's behavior. Ambitious international and national conservation policies frequently fail to effectively mitigate biodiversity loss because they rarely apply behavior-change theories. We conducted a gap analysis of conservation behavior-change interventions advocated in national conservation strategies with the Behavior Change Wheel (BCW), a comprehensive framework for systematically characterizing and designing behavior-change interventions. Using pollinator conservation as a case study, we classified the conservation actions listed in national pollinator initiatives in relation to intervention functions and policy categories of the BCW. We included all national-level policy documents from the European Union available in March 2019 that focused on conservation of pollinators (n = 8). A total of 610 pollinator conservation actions were coded using in-depth directed content analysis, resulting in the identification of 787 intervention function and 766 policy category codes. Overall, these initiatives did not employ the entire breadth of behavioral interventions. Intervention functions most frequently identified were education (23%) and environmental restructuring (19%). Least frequently identified intervention functions were incentivization (3%), and restriction (2%) and coercion were completely absent (0%). Importantly, 41% of all pollinator conservation actions failed to identify whose behavior was to be changed. Building on these analyses, we suggest that reasons for the serious implementation gap in national and international conservation policies is founded in insufficient understanding of which behavioral interventions to employ for most beneficial impacts on biodiversity and how to clearly specify the intervention targets. We recommend that policy advisors engage with behavior-change theory to design effective behavior-change interventions that underpin successful conservation policies.

Atención al Comportamiento en las Políticas de Conservación de los Polinizadores para Combatir la Brecha de Implementación Resumen Las soluciones para conservar a la biodiversidad se encuentran en el cambio del comportamiento de las personas. Las políticas ambiciosas de conservación nacional e internacional con frecuencia fallan en mitigar efectivamente la pérdida de la biodiversidad porque rara vez aplican teorías de cambios en el comportamiento. Realizamos un análisis de brecha de las intervenciones de cambios en el comportamiento de conservación promovidas en las estrategias de conservación nacional usando la Rueda de Cambios en el Comportamiento (BCW), un marco de trabajo completo para caracterizar y diseñar sistemáticamente las intervenciones de cambios en el comportamiento. Con la conservación de los polinizadores como un estudio de caso, clasificamos las acciones de conservación listadas en las iniciativas nacionales para los polinizadores en relación con las funciones de la intervención y las categorías de las políticas de la BCW. Incluimos todos los documentos de políticas a nivel nacional de la Unión Europea disponibles en marzo de 2019 cuyo enfoque fuera la conservación de los polinizadores (n = 8). Se codificó un total de 610 acciones para la conservación de los polinizadores mediante análisis profundos de contenido dirigidos, lo que resultó en la identificación de 787 códigos de función de la intervención y 766 códigos de categoría de las políticas. En general, estas iniciativas no emplearon la amplitud completa de las intervenciones de comportamiento. Las funciones de la intervención que fueron identificadas con mayor frecuencia fueron la educación (23%) y la reestructuración ambiental (19%); aquellas que fueron identificadas con menor frecuencia fueron la estimulación y el fomento (3%) y la restricción, mientras que la coerción estuvo totalmente ausente (0%). Es importante resaltar que el 41% de todas las acciones por la conservación de los polinizadores falló en la identificación de a quiénes se les debería cambiar el comportamiento. Con base en estos análisis sugerimos que las razones detrás de la brecha severa en la implementación de las políticas de conservación nacionales e internacionales están fundamentadas en el entendimiento insuficiente de cuáles intervenciones de comportamiento emplear para un impacto de mayor beneficio sobre la biodiversidad y cómo especificar claramente los objetivos de las intervenciones. Recomendamos que los asesores políticos se involucren con la teoría del cambio del comportamiento para así diseñar intervenciones efectivas de cambios en el comportamiento que respalden políticas exitosas de conservación.

Promoting meaningful and positive nature interactions for visitors to green spaces.

The increasing alienation of people from nature is profoundly concerning because people's interactions with nature affect well-being, affinity for nature, and support of biodiversity conservation. Efforts to restore or enhance people's interactions with nature are, therefore, important to ensure sustainable human and wildlife communities, but little is known about how this can be achieved. A key factor that shapes the way people interact with nature is their affinity for nature (often measured as nature relatedness [NR]). We explored how using cues to experience nature as a means to induce NR situationally can influence the quality of people's nature interactions on visits to green spaces and their positive affect after the visit. Cues to experience are cues that guide individuals on how to interact with nature. We surveyed 1023 visitors to a nature reserve to examine the relationships between trait (i.e., stable and long-lasting) and state (i.e., temporary, brief) NR, the quality of nature interactions, and positive affect. We also conducted a controlled experiment in which 303 participants spent 30 min outdoors on campus and reported the quality of their nature interactions and positive affect. Participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 9 cues-to-experience experimental groups (e.g., smell flowers, observe wildlife, turn off your phone) that differed in the psychological distance from nature that they prompted. Participants who received cues of close psychological distance from nature (e.g., smell and touch natural elements) interacted 3 to 4 times more with nature and reported 0.2 more positive affect than other participants. Our results demonstrate that providing cues to experience nature, which bring people closer to nature and potentially induce state NR, can enhance the quality of people's nature interactions and their positive affect. These results highlight the role of NR in high-quality nature interactions and suggest the use of cues to experience as a promising avenue for inducing state NR and promoting meaningful interactions with biodiversity, thus, reconciling conservation and well-being objectives.

Fomento a las Interacciones Significativas y Positivas con la Naturaleza para los Visitantes a las Áreas Verdes Resumen El creciente distanciamiento entre las personas y la naturaleza genera una preocupación seria, pues las interacciones entre las personas y la naturaleza afectan al bienestar, la afinidad por la naturaleza y al apoyo para la conservación de la biodiversidad. Por lo tanto, los esfuerzos por restaurar o mejorar las interacciones entre las personas y la naturaleza son importantes para asegurar la existencia de comunidades sustentables de humanos y fauna. A pesar de esto, se conoce muy poco sobre cómo se puede lograr lo anterior. Un factor clave que define la manera en la que las personas interactúan con la naturaleza es su afinidad por la misma (la cual se mide generalmente como vínculo con la naturaleza [VN]). Exploramos cómo el uso de las pautas para experimentar la naturaleza como los medios para inducir el VN circunstancial puede influir sobre la calidad de las interacciones entre las personas y la naturaleza durante sus visitas a áreas verdes y el efecto positivo posterior a estas visitas. Las pautas experimentales son pautas que guían a los individuos sobre cómo deben interactuar con la naturaleza. Encuestamos a 1023 visitantes en una reserva natural para examinar las relaciones entre el rasgo (es decir, estable y de larga duración) y el estado (es decir, temporal, breve) del VN, la calidad de las interacciones con la naturaleza y el efecto positivo. También realizamos un experimento controlado en el cual 303 participantes pasaron 30 minutos en el exterior y reportaron la calidad de sus interacciones con la naturaleza y del efecto positivo. Los participantes fueron asignados al azar a uno de los nueve grupos de pautas experimentales (p. ej.: oler flores, observar fauna, apagar su teléfono celular) cuya diferencia era el distanciamiento psicológico con la naturaleza que pautaba. Los participantes que recibieron pautas de distancia psicológica próxima a la naturaleza (p. ej.: oler y tocar elementos naturales) interactuaron 3-4 veces más con la naturaleza y reportaron un efecto 0.2 más positivo que los demás participantes. Nuestros resultados demuestran que el fomento de pautas para experiencias con la naturaleza, las cuales acercan a las personas con la naturaleza y tienen el potencial para inducir un estado VN, pueden mejorar la calidad de las interacciones que tienen las personas con la naturaleza y su efecto positivo. Estos resultados resaltan el papel del VN en las interacciones de alta calidad con la naturaleza y sugieren que el uso de pautas exerimentale es una vía prometedora para inducir el estado VN y promover las interacciones significativas con la biodiversidad, reconciliando así a la conservación con los objetivos de bienestar.

Unrelenting spread of the alien monk parakeet Myiopsitta monachus in Israel. Is it time to sound the alarm?

BACKGROUND: Monk parakeets, Myiopsitta monachus Boddaert, are native to South America but have established populations in North America, Europe, Africa and Asia. They are claimed to act as agricultural pests in their native range, and their communal stick nests may damage human infrastructure. Although several monk parakeet populations are present in the Mediterranean Basin and temperate Europe, little empirical data are available on their population size and growth, distribution and potential impact. We investigated the temporal and spatial dynamics of monk parakeets in Israel to assess their invasion success and potential impact on agriculture. RESULTS: Monk parakeet populations are growing exponentially at a higher rate than that reported elsewhere. The current Israeli population of monk parakeets comprises approximately 1500 individuals. The distribution of the species has increased and shifted from predominantly urban areas to agricultural landscapes. CONCLUSIONS: In Israel, monk parakeet populations are growing fast and have dispersed rapidly from cities to agricultural areas. At present, reports of agricultural damage are scarce. A complete assessment of possible management strategies is urgently needed before the population becomes too large and widespread to allow for cost-effective mitigation campaigns to be implemented. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Virtual garden computer program for use in exploring the elements of biodiversity people want in cities.

Urban ecology is emerging as an integrative science that explores the interactions of people and biodiversity in cities. Interdisciplinary research requires the creation of new tools that allow the investigation of relations between people and biodiversity. It has been established that access to green spaces or nature benefits city dwellers, but the role of species diversity in providing psychological benefits remains poorly studied. We developed a user-friendly 3-dimensional computer program (Virtual Garden [www.tinyurl.com/3DVirtualGarden]) that allows people to design their own public or private green spaces with 95 biotic and abiotic features. Virtual Garden allows researchers to explore what elements of biodiversity people would like to have in their nearby green spaces while accounting for other functions that people value in urban green spaces. In 2011, 732 participants used our Virtual Garden program to design their ideal small public garden. On average gardens contained 5 different animals, 8 flowers, and 5 woody plant species. Although the mathematical distribution of flower and woody plant richness (i.e., number of species per garden) appeared to be similar to what would be expected by random selection of features, 30% of participants did not place any animal species in their gardens. Among those who placed animals in their gardens, 94% selected colorful species (e.g., ladybug [Coccinella septempunctata], Great Tit [Parus major], and goldfish), 53% selected herptiles or large mammals, and 67% selected non-native species. Older participants with a higher level of education and participants with a greater concern for nature designed gardens with relatively higher species richness and more native species. If cities are to be planned for the mutual benefit of people and biodiversity and to provide people meaningful experiences with urban nature, it is important to investigate people's relations with biodiversity further. Virtual Garden offers a standardized tool with which to explore these relations in different environments, cultures, and countries. It can also be used by stakeholders (e.g., city planners) to consider people's opinions of local design.

Urban biodiversity, city-dwellers and conservation: how does an outdoor activity day affect the human-nature relationship?

Urban conservation education programs aim to increase knowledge and awareness towards biodiversity and to change attitudes and behaviour towards the environment. However, to date, few urban conservation education studies have evaluated to what extent these programs have managed to achieve their goals. In this study, we experimentally explored the influence of an urban conservation activity day on individual knowledge, awareness and actions towards biodiversity, in both the short and longer term.We organised three activity days in Paris (France), during which people were invited to participate in urban conservation efforts. Both quantitative (questionnaire) and qualitative (interviews) methods were employed to investigate the influence of this short urban nature experience on the relationships that city-dwellers develop with nearby biodiversity. We found a strong positive correlation between the levels of participation and an immediate interest towards local urban biodiversity. In the longer term, however, although participants claimed to have gained more knowledge, local awareness and interest for species in their daily environment, they did not seem to extend this interest to participating in other related activities. These results highlight the complexity of validating the effectiveness of this type of education program for achieving conservation goals. Although such a short activity may only have a limited environmental impact, it nevertheless seems to increase people's knowledge, awareness, interest and concern. We therefore believe that when repeated locally, these short conservation education programs could enhance people's experience with nature in cities and achieve conservation goals more fully.