Partial substitution of soybean meal with microalgae meal (Arthrospira spp. - Spirulina) in grower and finisher diets for broiler chickens: implications on performance parameters, footpad dermatitis occurrence, breast meat quality traits, amino acid digestibility and plasma metabolomics profile.

This trial was conducted to evaluate the effects of replacing soybean meal with microalgae meal (MM; Arthrospira spp.) during grower and finisher phases on productive performance, footpad dermatitis (FPD) occurrence, breast meat quality, amino acid digestibility and plasma metabolomics profile of broiler chickens. One thousand day-old Ross 308 male chicks were divided into 5 experimental groups (8 replicates, 25 birds/each): CON, fed a commercial soybean-based diet throughout the trial (0-41 d); F3 and F6, fed the CON diet up to 28 d of age and then a finisher diet (29-41 d) with either 30 or 60 g MM/kg, respectively; and GF3 and GF6, receiving CON diet until 14 d and then diets containing 30 or 60 g MM/kg from 15 to 41 d, respectively. All diets were iso-energetic and with a similar amino acid profile. Growth performances were recorded on a pen basis at the end of each feeding phase and apparent ileal amino acid digestibility was determined at 41 d. Footpad dermatitis occurrence was assessed on all processed birds, while breast and plasma samples were collected for meat quality and metabolomics analysis (proton nuclear magnetic resonance - 1H-NMR). At 41 d, CON group showed higher body weight than F6 and GF6 ones (2,541 vs. 2,412 vs. 2,384 g, respectively; P < 0.05). Overall, GF6 group exhibited the highest feed conversion ratio, while F3 did not present significant differences compared to CON (1.785 vs. 1.810 vs. 1.934 g feed/g gain, respectively for CON, F3 and GF6; P < 0.01). The occurrence and the risk of developing FPD were similar among groups. MM administration increased breast meat yellowness and reduced amino acid digestibility (P < 0.001). The 1H-NMR analysis revealed variations in the levels of some circulating metabolites, including histidine, arginine and creatine, which play important metabolic roles. Overall, these findings can contribute to expand the knowledge about the use of Arthrospira spp. as protein source in broiler diets.

Time course evaluation of collagen type IV in Pectoralis major muscles of broiler chickens selected for different growth-rates.

Collagen type IV (COL4) is one of the major components of animals' and humans' basement membranes of several tissues, such as skeletal muscles and vascular endothelia. Alterations in COL4 assembly and secretion are associated to muscular disorders in humans and animals among which growth-related abnormalities such as white striping and wooden breast affecting Pectoralis major muscles (PMs) in modern fast-growing (FG) chickens. Considering the high prevalence of these myopathies in FG broilers and that a worsening is observed as the bird slaughter age is increased, the present study was intended to evaluate the distribution and the expression level of COL4 protein and its coding genes in PMs of FG broilers at different stages of muscle development (i.e., 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, and 42 d of age). Medium-growing (MG) chickens have been considered as the control group in consideration of the lower selection pressure on breast muscle growth rate and hypertrophy. Briefly, 5 PM/sampling time/genotype were selected for western blot, immunohistochemistry (IHC), and gene expression analyses. The normalized expression levels of COL4 coding genes showed an overexpression of COL4A2 in FG than MG at d 28, as well as a significant decrease in its expression over their rearing period. Overall, results obtained through the gene expression analysis suggested that selection for the hypertrophic growth of FG broilers may have led to an altered regulation of fibroblast proliferation and COL4 synthesis. Moreover, western blot and IHC analyses suggested an altered secretion and/or degradation of COL4 protein in FG broilers, as evidenced by the fluctuating trend of 2 bands observed in FG over time. In view of the above, the present research supports the evidence about a potential aberrant synthesis and/or degradation of COL4 and corroborates the hypothesis regarding a likely involvement of COL4 in the series of events underlying the growth-related abnormalities in modern FG broilers.

In-ovo feeding with creatine monohydrate: implications for chicken energy reserves and breast muscle development during the pre-post hatching period.

The most dynamic period throughout the lifespan of broiler chickens is the pre-post-hatching period, entailing profound effects on their energy status, survival rate, body weight, and muscle growth. Given the significance of this pivotal period, we evaluated the effect of in-ovo feeding (IOF) with creatine monohydrate on late-term embryos' and hatchlings' energy reserves and post-hatch breast muscle development. The results demonstrate that IOF with creatine elevates the levels of high-energy-value molecules (creatine and glycogen) in the liver, breast muscle and yolk sac tissues 48 h post IOF, on embryonic day 19 (p < 0.03). Despite this evidence, using a novel automated image analysis tool on day 14 post-hatch, we found a significantly higher number of myofibers with lower diameter and area in the IOF creatine group compared to the control and IOF NaCl groups (p < 0.004). Gene expression analysis, at hatch, revealed that IOF creatine group had significantly higher expression levels of myogenin (MYOG) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1), related to differentiation of myogenic cells (p < 0.01), and lower expression of myogenic differentiation protein 1 (MyoD), related to their proliferation (p < 0.04). These results imply a possible effect of IOF with creatine on breast muscle development through differential expression of genes involved in myogenic proliferation and differentiation. The findings provide valuable insights into the potential of pre-hatch enrichment with creatine in modulating post-hatch muscle growth and development.

Shape and fractures of carina sterni in chicken genotypes with different egg deposition rates reared indoor or free-range.

Commercial laying hens have high frequency of damage to the keel bone (KB), which causes negative effects on health and welfare. KB damage may consist in fractures (KBF) and deviations (KBD). The aim of the present study was to compare the KB shape, by means of Geometric Morphometric, and the occurrence of fractures in different chicken genotypes reared either free-range (FR) or in enriched cages. Moreover, the relationship between KB shape, genotype and rearing system was analysed. Sixty birds/genotype (2 Italian local breeds, Bionda Piemontese and Robusta Maculata, their crossbreeds with Sasso and Lohmann Brown) were used. All the hens fed the same commercial feed throughout the trial. Body weight, egg production, feed intake and mortality were recorded from 25 to 66 weeks of age. Ca intake (IN) and output (OUT) were estimated and Ca OUT/IN was calculated. FR affected the occurrence of KB deviations but not the shape, whereas the fractures were mainly affected by genotype. Local breeds had a lower prevalence of KBF with similar level of KBD but with different shapes. Crossbreeds seemed to be a suitable compromise between egg deposition rate and occurrence of KB damages.

Impact of chronic heat stress on behavior, oxidative status and meat quality traits of fast-growing broiler chickens.

This research aimed to investigate, through a multifactorial approach, the relationship among some in-vivo parameters (i.e., behavior and blood traits) in broilers exposed to chronic HS, and their implications on proximate composition, technological properties, and oxidative stability of breast meat. A total of 300 Ross 308 male chickens were exposed, from 35 to 41 days of age, to either thermoneutral conditions (TNT group: 20°C; six replicates of 25 birds/each) or elevated ambient temperature (HS group: 24 h/d at 30°C; six replicates of 25 birds/each). In order to deal with thermal stress, HS chickens firstly varied the frequency of some behaviors that are normally expressed also in physiological conditions (i.e., increasing "drinking" and decreasing "feeding") and then exhibited a behavioral pattern finalized at dissipating heat, primarily represented by "roosting," "panting" and "elevating wings." Such modifications become evident when the temperature reached 25°C, while the behavioral frequencies tended to stabilize at 27°C with no further substantial changes over the 6 days of thermal challenge. The multifactorial approach highlighted that these behavioral changes were associated with oxidative and inflammatory status as indicated by lower blood γ-tocopherol and higher carbonyls level (0.38 vs. 0.18 nmol/mL, and 2.39 vs. 7.19 nmol/mg proteins, respectively for TNT and HS; p < 0.001). HS affected breast meat quality by reducing the moisture:protein ratio (3.17 vs. 3.01, respectively for TNT and HS; p < 0.05) as well as the muscular acidification (ultimate pH = 5.81 vs. 6.00, respectively; p < 0.01), resulting in meat with higher holding capacity and tenderness. HS conditions reduced thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) concentration in the breast meat while increased protein oxidation. Overall results evidenced a dynamic response of broiler chickens to HS exposure that induced behavioral and physiological modifications strictly linked to alterations of blood parameters and meat quality characteristics.

Metabolic and microbiota response to arginine supplementation and cyclic heat stress in broiler chickens.

Little attention has been paid to the biological role of arginine and its dietary supplementation in broilers under heat stress (HS) conditions. Therefore, the main aim of this study was to assess the response of broilers to arginine supplementation and cyclic HS, with a focus on liver, pectoral muscle, and blood metabolic profiles and the cecal microbiota. Day-old male Ross 308 broilers (n = 240) were placed in 2 rooms with 12 pens each for a 44-day trial. Pens were assigned to one of two groups (6 pens/group/room): the control group (CON) was given a basal diet in mash form and the treated group (ARG) was fed CON diet supplemented with crystalline L-arginine. The total arginine:lysine ratio of CON diet ranged between 1.02 and 1.07, while that of ARG diet was 1.20. One room was constantly kept at thermoneutral (TN) conditions, while the birds in the other room were kept at TN conditions until D34 and subjected to cyclic HS from D35 onwards (∼34°C; 9:00 A.M.-6:00 P.M.). Blood, liver, Pectoralis major muscle, and cecal content were taken from 2 birds per pen (12 birds/group/room) for metabolomics and microbiota analysis. Growth performance data were also collected on a pen basis. Arginine supplementation failed to reduce the adverse effects of HS on growth performance. Supplemented birds showed increased levels of arginine and creatine in plasma, liver, and P. major and methionine in liver, and reduced levels of glutamine in plasma, liver, and P. major. HS altered bioenergetic processes (increased levels of AMP and reduced levels of fumarate, succinate, and UDP), protein metabolism (increased protein breakdown to supply the liver with amino acids for energy production), and promoted the accumulation of antioxidant and protective molecules (histidine-containing dipeptides, beta-alanine, and choline), especially in P. major. Arginine supplementation may have partially counterbalanced the effects of HS on energy homeostasis by increasing creatine levels and attenuating the increase in AMP levels, particularly in P. major. It also significantly reduced cecal observed diversity, while HS increased alpha diversity indices and affected beta diversity. Results of taxonomic analysis at the phylum and family level are also provided.

Feeding broiler chickens with arginine above recommended levels: effects on growth performance, metabolism, and intestinal microbiota.

BACKGROUND: Arginine is an essential amino acid for chickens and feeding diets with arginine beyond the recommended levels has been shown to influence the growth performance of broiler chickens in a positive way. Nonetheless, further research is required to understand how arginine supplementation above the widely adopted dosages affects metabolism and intestinal health of broilers. Therefore, this study was designed to assess the effects of arginine supplementation (i.e., total arginine to total lysine ratio of 1.20 instead of 1.06-1.08 recommended by the breeding company) on growth performance of broiler chickens and to explore its impacts on the hepatic and blood metabolic profiles, as well as on the intestinal microbiota. For this purpose, 630 one-day-old male Ross 308 broiler chicks were assigned to 2 treatments (7 replicates each) fed a control diet or a crystalline L-arginine-supplemented diet for 49 d. RESULTS: Compared to control birds, those supplemented with arginine performed significantly better exhibiting greater final body weight at D49 (3778 vs. 3937 g; P < 0.001), higher growth rate (76.15 vs. 79.46 g of body weight gained daily; P < 0.001), and lower cumulative feed conversion ratio (1.808 vs. 1.732; P < 0.05). Plasma concentrations of arginine, betaine, histidine, and creatine were greater in supplemented birds than in their control counterparts, as were those of creatine, leucine and other essential amino acids at the hepatic level. In contrast, leucine concentration was lower in the caecal content of supplemented birds. Reduced alpha diversity and relative abundance of Firmicutes and Proteobacteria (specifically Escherichia coli), as well as increased abundance of Bacteroidetes and Lactobacillus salivarius were found in the caecal content of supplemented birds. CONCLUSIONS: The improvement in growth performance corroborates the advantages of supplementing arginine in broiler nutrition. It can be hypothesized that the performance enhancement found in this study is associated with the increased availability of arginine, betaine, histidine, and creatine in plasma and the liver, as well as to the ability of extra dietary arginine to potentially ameliorate intestinal conditions and microbiota of supplemented birds. However, the latter promising property, along with other research questions raised by this study, deserve further investigations.

Differential expression patterns of genes associated with metabolisms, muscle growth and repair in Pectoralis major muscles of fast- and medium-growing chickens.

The aim of this study was to investigate the expression of genes related to muscle growth, hypoxia and oxidative stress responses, a multi-substrate serine/threonine-protein kinase (AMPK) and AMPK-related kinases, carbohydrate metabolism, satellite cells activities and fibro- adipogenic progenitors (FAPs) in fast-growing (FG) (n = 30) and medium-growing (MG) chickens (n = 30). Pectoralis major muscles were collected at 7d, 14d, 21d, 28d, 35d and 42d of age. According to their macroscopic features, the samples from FG up to 21d of age were classified as unaffected, while all samples collected at an older age exhibited macroscopic features ascribable to white striping and/or wooden breast abnormalities. In contrast, MG samples did not show any feature associated to muscle disorders. The absolute transcript abundance of 33 target genes was examined by droplet digital polymerase chain reaction. The results showed differential gene expression profiles between FG and MG chickens at different ages. While most genes remained unchanged in MG chickens, the expression patterns of several genes in FG were significantly affected by age. Genes encoding alpha 1, alpha 2, beta 2 and gamma 3 isoforms of AMPK, as well as AMPK-related kinases, were identified as differentially expressed between the two strains. The results support the hypothesis of oxidative stress-induced muscle damage with metabolic alterations in FG chickens. An increased expression of ANXA2, DES, LITAF, MMP14, MYF5 and TGFB1 was observed in FG strain. The results suggest the occurrence of dysregulation of FAP proliferation and differentiation occurring during muscle repair. FAPs could play an important role in defining the proliferation of connective tissue (fibrosis) and deposition of intermuscular adipose tissue which represents distinctive traits of muscle abnormalities. Overall, these findings demonstrate that dysregulated molecular processes associated with myopathic lesions in chickens are strongly influenced by growth rate, and, to some extent, by age.

The evolution of vimentin and desmin in Pectoralis major muscles of broiler chickens supports their essential role in muscle regeneration.

Vimentin (VIM) and desmin (DES) are muscle-specific proteins having crucial roles in maintaining the lateral organization and alignment of the sarcomeric structure during myofibrils' regeneration. The present experiment was designed to ascertain the evolution of VIM and DES in Pectoralis major muscles (PM) of fast-growing (FG) and medium-growing (MG) meat-type chickens both at the protein and gene levels. MG broilers were considered as a control group whereas the evolution of VIM and DES over the growth period was evaluated in FG by collecting samples at different developmental stages (7, 14, 21, 28, 35, and 42 days). After performing a preliminary classification of the samples based on their histological features, 5 PM/sampling time/genotype were selected for western blot, immunohistochemistry (IHC), and gene expression analyses. Overall, the findings obtained at the protein level mirrored those related to their encoding genes, although a potential time lag required to observe the consequences of gene expression was evident. The two- and 3-fold higher level of the VIM-based heterodimer observed in FG at d 21 and d 28 in comparison with MG of the same age might be ascribed to the beginning and progressive development of the regenerative processes. This hypothesis is supported by IHC highlighting the presence of fibers to co-expressing VIM and DES. In addition, gene expression analyses suggested that, unlike VIM common sequence, VIM long isoform may not be directly implicated in muscle regeneration. As for DES content, the fluctuating trends observed for both the native protein and its heterodimer in FG might be ascribed to its importance for maintaining the structural organization of the regenerating fibers. Furthermore, the higher expression level of the DES gene in FG in comparison with MG further supported its potential application as a marker of muscle fibers' regeneration. In conclusion, the findings of the present research seem to support the existence of a relationship between the occurrence of muscle regeneration and the growth rate of meat-type chickens and corroborate the potential use of VIM and DES as molecular markers of these cellular processes.

A review of heat stress in chickens. Part I: Insights into physiology and gut health.

Heat stress (HS) compromises the yield and quality of poultry products and endangers the sustainability of the poultry industry. Despite being homeothermic, chickens, especially fast-growing broiler lines, are particularly sensitive to HS due to the phylogenetic absence of sweat glands, along with the artificial selection-caused increase in metabolic rates and limited development of cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Clinical signs and consequences of HS are multifaceted and include alterations in behavior (e.g., lethargy, decreased feed intake, and panting), metabolism (e.g., catabolic state, fat accumulation, and reduced skeletal muscle accretion), general homeostasis (e.g., alkalosis, hormonal imbalance, immunodeficiency, inflammation, and oxidative stress), and gastrointestinal tract function (e.g., digestive and absorptive disorders, enteritis, paracellular barrier failure, and dysbiosis). Poultry scientists and companies have made great efforts to develop effective solutions to counteract the detrimental effects of HS on health and performance of chickens. Feeding and nutrition have been shown to play a key role in combating HS in chicken husbandry. Nutritional strategies that enhance protein and energy utilization as well as dietary interventions intended to restore intestinal eubiosis are of increasing interest because of the marked effects of HS on feed intake, nutrient metabolism, and gut health. Hence, the present review series, divided into Part I and Part II, seeks to synthesize information on the effects of HS on physiology, gut health, and performance of chickens, with emphasis on potential solutions adopted in broiler chicken nutrition to alleviate these effects. Part I provides introductory knowledge on HS physiology to make good use of the nutritional themes covered by Part II.

A review of heat stress in chickens. Part II: Insights into protein and energy utilization and feeding.

With the growing global demand for animal protein and rising temperatures caused by climate change, heat stress (HS) is one of the main emerging environmental challenges for the poultry industry. Commercially-reared birds are particularly sensitive to hot temperatures, so adopting production systems that mitigate the adverse effects of HS on bird performance is essential and requires a holistic approach. Feeding and nutrition can play important roles in limiting the heat load on birds; therefore, this review aims to describe the effects of HS on feed intake (FI) and nutrient digestibility and to highlight feeding strategies and nutritional solutions to potentially mitigate some of the deleterious effects of HS on broiler chickens. The reduction of FI is one of the main behavioral changes induced by hot temperatures as birds attempt to limit heat production associated with the digestion, absorption, and metabolism of nutrients. Although the intensity and length of the heat period influences the type and magnitude of responses, reduced FI explains most of the performance degradation observed in HS broilers, while reduced nutrient digestibility appears to only explain a small proportion of impaired feed efficiency following HS. Targeted feeding strategies, including feed restriction and withdrawal, dual feeding, and wet feeding, have showed some promising results under hot temperatures, but these can be difficult to implement in intensive rearing systems. Concerning diet composition, feeding increased nutrient and energy diets can potentially compensate for decreased FI during HS. Indeed, high energy and high crude protein diets have both been shown to improve bird performance under HS conditions. Specifically, positive results may be obtained with increased added fat concentrations since lipids have a lower thermogenic effect compared to proteins and carbohydrates. Moreover, increased supplementation of some essential amino acids can help support increased amino acid requirements for maintenance functions caused by HS. Further research to better characterize and advance these nutritional strategies will help establish economically viable solutions to enhance productivity, health, welfare, and meat quality of broilers facing HS.

Effect of Cyclic Heat Stress on Hypothalamic Oxygen Homeostasis and Inflammatory State in the Jungle Fowl and Three Broiler-Based Research Lines.

Heat stress (HS) is devastating to poultry production sustainability due its detrimental effects on performance, welfare, meat quality, and profitability. One of the most known negative effects of HS is feed intake depression, which is more pronounced in modern high-performing broilers compared to their ancestor unselected birds, yet the underlying molecular mechanisms are not fully defined. The present study aimed, therefore, to determine the hypothalamic expression of a newly involved pathway, hypoxia/oxygen homeostasis, in heat-stressed broiler-based research lines and jungle fowl. Three populations of broilers (slow growing ACRB developed in 1956, moderate growing 95RB from broilers available in 1995, and modern fast growing MRB from 2015) and unselected Jungle fowl birds were exposed to cyclic heat stress (36°C, 9 h/day for 4 weeks) in a 2 × 4 factorial experimental design. Total RNAs and proteins were extracted from the hypothalamic tissues and the expression of target genes and proteins was determined by real-time quantitative PCR and Western blot, respectively. It has been previously shown that HS increased core body temperature and decreased feed intake in 95RB and MRB, but not in ACRB or JF. HS exposure did not affect the hypothalamic expression of HIF complex, however there was a line effect for HIF-1α (P = 0.02) with higher expression in JF under heat stress. HS significantly up regulated the hypothalamic expression of hemoglobin subunits (HBA1, HBBR, HBE, HBZ), and HJV in ACRB, HBA1 and HJV in 95RB and MRB, and HJV in JF, but it down regulated FPN1 in JF. Additionally, HS altered the hypothalamic expression of oxygen homeostasis- up and down-stream signaling cascades. Phospho-AMPKThr172 was activated by HS in JF hypothalamus, but it decreased in that of the broiler-based research lines. Under thermoneutral conditions, p-AMPKThr172 was higher in broiler-based research lines compared to JF. Ribosomal protein S6K1, however, was significantly upregulated in 95RB and MRB under both environmental conditions. HS significantly upregulated the hypothalamic expression of NF-κB2 in MRB, RelB, and TNFα in ACRB, abut it down regulated RelA in 95RB. The regulation of HSPs by HS seems to be family- and line-dependent. HS upregulated the hypothalamic expression of HSP60 in ACRB and 95RB, down regulated HSP90 in JF only, and decreased HSP70 in all studied lines. Taken together, this is the first report showing that HS modulated the hypothalamic expression of hypoxia- and oxygen homeostasis-associated genes as well as their up- and down-stream mediators in chickens, and suggests that hypoxia, thermotolerance, and feed intake are interconnected, which merit further in-depth investigations.

A multi-omics approach to elucidate the mechanisms of action of a dietary muramidase administered to broiler chickens.

A novel dietary muramidase has been shown to have positive effects on broiler chickens. However, very little is known about its mechanisms of action. The present multi-omics investigation sought to address this knowledge gap. A total of 2,340 day-old male broilers were assigned to 3 groups (12 replicates each) fed, from 0 to 42 d, a basal diet (control group-CON) or the basal diet supplemented with muramidase at 25,000 (low-dose group-MUL) or 45,000 LSU(F)/kg feed (high-dose group-MUH). MUH significantly outperformed CON in terms of cumulative feed intake (4,798 vs 4,705 g), body weight (2,906 vs 2,775 g), and feed conversion ratio (1.686 vs 1.729), while MUL exhibited intermediate performance. At caecal level, MUH showed the lowest alpha diversity, a significantly different beta diversity, a reduction in Firmicutes, and a rise in Bacteroidetes, especially compared with MUL. MUH also exhibited a considerable decrease in Clostridiaceae and an overrepresentation of Bacteroidaceae and Lactobacillaceae. At blood level, MUH had lower hypoxanthine-probably due to its drop at caecal level-histidine, and uracil, while greater pyruvate, 2-oxoglutarate, and glucose. This study sheds light on the mode of action of this muramidase and lays the groundwork for future investigations on its effects on the intestinal ecosystem and systemic metabolism of broiler chickens.

Carcass Yields and Meat Composition of Male and Female Italian Slow-Growing Chicken Breeds: Bianca di Saluzzo and Bionda Piemontese.

The slaughter performance and meat quality of two native Italian chicken breeds, Bionda Piemontese (BP, n = 64) and Bianca di Saluzzo (BS, n = 64), were investigated. Two-way ANOVA, considering breed, sex, and their interaction, was used to compare the properties of birds slaughtered at 5, 6, 7, and 8 months of age. Subsequently, data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA and the Duncan test to evaluate the differences between slaughter ages. The BP breed produced a better carcass yield than BS at 5, 7, and 8 months of age (p < 0.05). Breast moisture and crude protein contents were influenced by gender, and were higher in males than in females (p < 0.05). By contrast, the crude fat content was higher in females than in males (p < 0.05). The saturated fatty acid content of breast meat increased as the birds aged in both breeds (p < 0.05). The polyunsaturated fatty acid content of both breast and thigh meat was higher in males than in females (p < 0.001 and p < 0.05, respectively). In general, slaughtering at 7 months was associated with the best slaughter and meat quality characteristics in both breeds. Moreover, from a nutritional point of view, the characteristics of the meat from male birds were preferable to those of meat from females.

Modified Black Soldier Fly Larva Fat in Broiler Diet: Effects on Performance, Carcass Traits, Blood Parameters, Histomorphological Features and Gut Microbiota.

In this study, a total of 200 male broiler chickens (Ross 308) were assigned to four dietary treatments (5 pens/treatment and 10 birds/pen) for two feeding phases: starter (0-11 days of age) and grower-finisher (11-33 days of age). A basal diet containing soy oil (SO) as added fat was used as control group (C), tested against three experimental diets where the SO was partially substituted by BSF larvae fat (BSF) or one of two types of modified BSF larvae fat (MBSF1 and MBSF2, respectively). The two modified BSF larvae fats had a high and low ratio of monobutyrin to monoglycerides of medium chain fatty acid, respectively. Diet did not influence the growth or slaughter performance, pH, color, or the chemical composition of breast and thigh muscles, gut morphometric indices, or histopathological alterations in all the organs. As far as fecal microbiota are concerned, MBSF1 and MBSF2 diets reduced the presence of Clostridium and Corynebacterium, which can frequently cause infection in poultry. In conclusion, modified BSF larva fat may positively modulate the fecal microbiota of broiler chickens without influencing the growth performance and intestinal morphology or showing any adverse histopathological alternations.

Perfluoroalkyl contaminants in eggs from backyard chickens reared in Italy.

Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are persistent and bioaccumulative compounds with adverse impacts on the environment and human health. Diet is one of the main sources of exposure to PFASs. Recently, the EFSA established a tolerable weekly intake (TWI) limit (4.4 ng/kg b.w.) for a mixture of the four major PFASs. Eggs and egg products can contribute to this intake, with their contamination possibly dependent on the husbandry system. Monitoring Italian eggs from backyard chickens revealed a relatively uniform PFAS contamination, with perfluoro-1-octanesulfonate being the most abundant. Contamination was detected to be significantly higher in eggs from backyard chickens than in eggs from commercial laying hens, consistent with a previous Italian study. According to the recently set TWI value, the consumption of eggs from backyard chickens could contribute significantly to dietary intake of PFASs (up to 29% of the TWI in children, considering the lower bound approach).

Lysine Depletion during Different Feeding Phases: Effects on Growth Performances and Meat Quality of Broiler Chickens.

The present study aimed at assessing the impact of lysine restriction performed during different feeding phases on growth performances, meat quality traits and technological properties as well as on the incidence and severity of breast muscle abnormalities. For this purpose, a total of 945 one-day-old Ross 308 male chicks was randomly divided into three experimental groups: CONT, fed a four feeding phases commercial diet, GRW I, and GRW I + II fed CONT diet with the depletion of synthetic lysine during grower I and grower I and II feeding phases, respectively. Productive performances were recorded throughout the whole rearing cycle and the incidence of breast muscle growth-related abnormalities assessed at slaughter (49 d) on 280 breasts/group. Quality traits and technological properties of breast meat were measured on a total of 54 Pectoralis major muscles. Lysine restriction only marginally affected the productive performances and the quality parameters of breast meat. The increased (p < 0.05) solubility of the protein fraction along with the remarkably higher (p < 0.05) anserine content found in GRW I + II suggests an increased energy requirement in the pectoral muscles belonging to lysine-restricted birds and supports the hypothesis of a reduced protein synthesis taking place within these muscles.

Neuropeptide Y and its receptors are expressed in chicken skeletal muscle and regulate mitochondrial function.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a highly conserved 36-amino acid neurotransmitter, which is primarily expressed in the mammalian arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus. It is a potent orexigenic neuropeptide, stimulating appetite and inducing feed intake in a variety of species. Recent research has shown that NPY and its receptors can be expressed by peripheral tissues, but their role is not yet well defined. Specifically, this information is particularly sparse in avian species. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the expression of NPY and its receptors, and determine their regulation by environmental and nutritional stressors, in the skeletal muscle of avian species using in vivo and in vitro approaches. Here, we show that NPY and its receptors are expressed in chicken breast and leg muscle as well as in quail myoblast (QM7) cell line. Intraperitoneal injection of recombinant NPY increased feed intake in 9-d old chicks and upregulated the expression of NPY and NPY receptors in breast and leg muscle, suggesting autocrine and/or paracrine roles for NPY. Additionally, NPY is able to modulate the mitochondrial network. In breast muscle, a low dose of NPY upregulated (P < 0.05) the expression of genes involved in ATP production (uncoupling protein, UCP; nuclear factor erythroid 2 like 2, NFE2L2) and dynamics (mitofusin 1, MFN1), while a high dose decreased (P < 0.05) markers of mitochondrial dynamics (mitofusin 2, MFN2; OPA1 mitochondrial dynamin like GTPase, OPA1) and increased (P < 0.05) genes involved in mitochondrial biogenesis (D-loop, peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma, PPARG). In leg muscle, NPY decreased (P < 0.05) markers of mitochondrial biogenesis and ATP synthesis (D-loop; peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha, PCG1A; peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, coactivator 1 beta, PPARGC1B; PPARG; NFE2L2). In QM7 cells, genes associated with mitochondrial biogenesis, dynamics, and ATP synthesis were all upregulated (P < 0.05), even though basal respiration and ATP production were decreased (P < 0.05) with NPY treatment as measured by XF Flux analysis. Together, these data show that the NPY system is expressed in avian skeletal muscle and plays a role in mitochondrial function.

Effect of Cyclic Heat Stress on Feeding-Related Hypothalamic Neuropeptides of Three Broiler Populations and Their Ancestor Jungle Fowl.

Heat stress (HS) has been increasingly jeopardizing the sustainability of the poultry production. Moreover, modern high-performing chickens are far less able to withstand HS than their predecessors due to higher growth rate and metabolic rates. Performance losses caused by HS are mainly ascribed to decreases in feed consumption. Since feed intake is tightly controlled by the hypothalamic centers of hunger and satiety, we sought to determine the effect of chronic cyclic HS on the expression of feeding-related hypothalamic neuropeptides (FRHN) in unselected chickens (i.e., the ancestor junglefowl-JF) and three broiler lines from diverse stages of genetic selection (i.e., the slow growing ACRB, the moderate growing 95RN, and the fast growing MRB). From 29 to 56 days, birds (n = 150 birds for each population) were subjected to either thermoneutral (TN, 25°C) or cyclic heat stress (HS, 36°C, 0900-1,800 h) conditions. Molecular data were analyzed by two-way ANOVA with interaction between the main factors, namely environmental temperature and line. The expression of major FHRN, like neuropeptide Y, agouti-related peptide, proopiomelanocortin, and cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript remained unchanged. However, melanocortin receptor 1 exhibited a line-dependent decreasing trend from JF to MRB under both TN and HS (p = 0.09), adiponectin expression showed a distinct trend toward significance with 95RB exhibiting the highest mRNA level irrespective of the environmental temperature (p = 0.08), and JF had a greater mRNA abundance of visfatin than ACRB under TN (p < 0.05). The hypothalamic integration of circadian information, acclimation to long-lasting HS exposure, stable hypothalamic pathways unaffected by evolution and genetic selection, focus on mRNA abundances, and use of the entire hypothalamus masking gene expression in specific hypothalamic nuclei are all possible explanations for the lack of variations observed in this study. In conclusion, this is the first assessment of the impacts of heat stress on feeding-related hypothalamic neuropeptides of chicken, with a valuable and informative comparison between the ancestor junglefowl and three differently performing broiler lines.

Muscle Abnormalities and Meat Quality Consequences in Modern Turkey Hybrids.

Turkey meat is the second most consumed poultry meat worldwide and represents an economic source of high-quality protein for human consumption. To fulfill the increasing demand for turkey meat, breeding companies have been selecting genetic lines with increased growth potential and breast muscle proportion. Moreover, the progressive shift toward further processed products has emphasized the need for higher standards in poultry meat to improve its technological characteristics and functional properties (i.e., water-holding capacity). However, as observed for broiler chickens, a growing body of scientific evidence suggests that the intense selection for the aforementioned traits could be associated with a greater occurrence of growth-related myopathies and abnormalities and, consequently, to increased downgrading rates and overall reduction of meat quality characteristics. In the past, muscle abnormalities such as deep pectoral myopathy, pale-soft-and-exudative-like meat, and focal myopathy have been reported in turkey lines selected for increased growth rate. In addition, the presence of white striations in the superficial layer of pectoralis major muscle, as well as the tendency of muscle fiber bundles to separate resulting in an altered breast muscle structure, has been detected in commercial turkey abattoirs. Furthermore, past investigations revealed the presence of another quality issue depicted by an overall toughening of the breast muscle. These meat abnormalities seem to macroscopically overlap the white striping, spaghetti meat, and wooden breast conditions observed in pectoral muscle of fast-growing, high-breast-yield chicken hybrids, respectively. Considering the high economic impact of these growth-related abnormalities in broilers, there is an increasing interest of the turkey industry in estimating the occurrence and the impact of these meat quality issues also in the modern turkey lines. Studies have been recently conducted to assess the effect of the genotype on the occurrence of these emerging growth-related defects and to evaluate how meat quality properties are affected by white-striping condition in turkeys, respectively. Therefore, this review aims to provide a critical overview of the current understanding regarding the growth-related abnormalities and their impact on meat quality in modern turkey hybrids with the hope that this information may improve the knowledge concerning their overall effect on poultry meat.