Using Nonlinear Kinematic Parameters as a Means of Predicting Motion Sickness in Real-Time in Virtual Environments.

OBJECTIVE: This article presents two studies (one simulation and one pilot) that assess a custom computer algorithm designed to predict motion sickness in real-time. BACKGROUND: Virtual reality has a wide range of applications; however, many users experience visually induced motion sickness. Previous research has demonstrated that changes in kinematic (behavioral) parameters are predictive of motion sickness. However, there has not been research demonstrating that these measures can be utilized in real-time applications. METHOD: Two studies were performed to assess an algorithm designed to predict motion sickness in real-time. Study 1 was a simulation study that used data from Smart et al. (2014). Study 2 employed the algorithm on 28 new participants' motion while exposed to virtual motion. RESULTS: Study 1 revealed that the algorithm was able to classify motion sick participants with 100% accuracy. Study 2 revealed that the algorithm could predict if a participant would become motion sick with 57% accuracy. CONCLUSION: The results of the present study suggest that the motion sickness prediction algorithm can predict if an individual will experience motion sickness but needs further refinement to improve performance. APPLICATION: The algorithm could be used for a wide array of VR devices to predict likelihood of motion sickness with enough time to intervene.

Muscle activity prior to experiencing the rubber hand illusion is associated with alterations in perceived hand location.

The rubber hand illusion (RHI) is a perceptual illusion in which one is made to feel that a hand-shaped object is part of their body. This illusion is believed to be the result of the integration of afferent information. However, there has been an increasing amount of evidence that suggests efferent information plays a role in this illusion as well. Previous research has found that individuals who are afflicted by pathological lack of movement experience the RHI more vividly than control participants. Whereas individuals who move their hands more than the general population (i.e. professional pianists) experience the RHI less vividly than control participants. Based upon the available evidence it would seem that muscle activity prior to experiencing the RHI should be associated with how vividly one experiences different indices of the illusion. In the present study we tested this possibility by having participants perform a maximum voluntary muscle contraction task prior to experiencing three variants of the RHI (moving active, moving passive and classic). It was found that electromyographic features known to be indicative of muscle fatigue exhibited a positive association with proprioceptive drift when stimulation was synchronous or visual movement only (with the exception of the passive moving RHI synchronous condition). More work is needed to better characterize the muscular processes associated with experiencing the RHI.

Effects of PEEP on the relationship between tidal volume and total impedance change measured via electrical impedance tomography (EIT).

Electrical impedance tomography (EIT) is used in lung physiology monitoring. There is evidence that EIT is linearly associated with global tidal volume (VT) in clinically healthy patients where no positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) is applied. This linearity has not been challenged by altering lung conditions. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of PEEP on VT estimation, using EIT technology and spirometry, and observe the stability of the relationship under changing lung conditions. Twelve male castrated cattle (Steer), mean age 7.8 months (SD ± 1.7) were premedicated with xylazine followed by anaesthesia induction with ketamine and maintenance with halothane in oxygen via an endotracheal tube. An EIT belt was applied around the thorax at the level of the fifth intercostal space. Volume controlled ventilation was used. PEEP was increased in a stepwise manner from 0 to 5, 10 and 15 cmH2O. At each PEEP, the VT was increased stepwise from 5 to 10 and 15 mL kg-1. After a minute of stabilisation, total impedance change (VTEIT), using EIT and VT measured by a spirometer connected to a flow-partitioning device (VTSpiro) was recorded for the following minute before changing ventilator settings. Data was analysed using linear regression and multi variable analysis. There was a linear relationship between VTEIT and VTSpiro at all levels of PEEP with an R2 of 0.71, 0.68, 0.63 and 0.63 at 0, 5, 10 and 15 cmH2O, respectively. The variance in VTEIT was best described by peak inspiratory pressure (PIP) and PEEP (adjusted R2 0.82) while variance in VTSpiro was best described by PIP and airway deadspace (adjusted R2 0.76). The relationship between VTEIT and VTSpiro remains linear with changes in tidal volume, and stable across altered lung conditions. This may have application for monitoring and assessment in vivo.

Preliminary Evaluation of the Moving Rubber Foot Illusion in a Sample of Female University Students.

The Rubber Foot Illusion (RFI) is an illusion in which one is made to feel that a model foot is their own through synchronous visuo-tactile stimulation. Previous research suggests that the conditions the RFI can be elicited under are similar to those of the Rubber Hand Illusion (RHI). However, it was unknown if the RFI could be elicited by synchronous movement of a participant's foot and a model foot. To examine this, we developed the Moving Rubber Foot Illusion (mRFI) and compared participants' experience of it to the RFI. The results of this study suggests that the RFI can be elicited through synchronous movement, and results in more proprioceptive drift than a static variant of the RFI. More work is needed to better understand the mechanisms underlying the mRFI.

Clinical characteristics of two-hundred thirty-two dogs (2006-2018) treated for suspected anaphylaxis in Perth, Western Australia.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical features of dogs treated for suspected anaphylaxis in Perth, Western Australia. DESIGN: Single-centre observational case series with retrospective and prospective phases. METHODS: This was a two-phase study of dogs with clinical suspicion of anaphylaxis presenting to the emergency service of a university teaching hospital. Dogs required evidence of, and appropriate treatment of, a type 1 hypersensitivity reaction as well as two or more organs affected (or cardiovascular signs alone) to be included. Phase 1 includes retrospective case series of 186 dogs (March 2006-December 2018). Phase 2 includes prospective descriptive case series of 46 dogs (October 2017-July 2018) focused on clinical signs. RESULTS: In phase 1, 88 (47%) dogs had evidence of insect exposure prior to the acute event. One hundred forty (75%) dogs had dermatological signs, 141 (76%) had gastrointestinal signs and 129 (69%) had cardiovascular signs. Ninety-two (49%) dogs had vasoconstrictive shock (5 with bradycardia), 24 (13%) had vasodilatory shock, 8 (4%) had mixed vasodilatory and vasoconstrictive shock and 5 (3%) had unclassifiable shock. On focused abdominal ultrasound, 42 of 71 (59%) dogs had gallbladder wall oedema and 3 of 71 (4%) dogs had peritoneal free fluid. In phase 2, the distributions of insect exposure, organ dysfunction and sonographic abnormalities were similar to phase 1. CONCLUSION: Dogs presenting with suspected anaphylaxis showed a broad range of presentations. Dermatological signs were absent in a proportion of dogs, vasoconstrictive shock was more frequent than vasodilatory and unique features of shock were identified. This study highlights the challenges of diagnosis based on presenting features alone.

Transfusion practice in Australia: an internet-based survey.

OBJECTIVE: To describe small animal transfusion practices in Australia, including access to blood products and frequency of pre-transfusion compatibility testing and medication administration. METHODS: An online survey was disseminated to target Australian veterinarians treating dogs and cats. Information collected included demographics, sources of blood products, blood storage, recipient compatibility testing and administration of medications pre-transfusion. Associations between the use of compatibility tests and premedications were assessed using the χ2 test. Significance was set at P < 0.05. RESULTS: A total of 199 Australian veterinarians were included; however, there was some attrition of respondents over the course of the survey. The majority of respondents were in general practice (n = 133/199). Access to fresh whole blood was commonly reported for dogs (n = 179/199) and cats (n = 131/198), whereas blood components were less commonly available (canine red blood cells [RBC], n = 52/199 and plasma, n = 157/199; feline RBC, n = 9/198 and plasma, n = 21/198). Most blood was sourced from the pets of owners affiliated with the veterinary clinic (n = 179/196). The respondents who did not blood type or crossmatch dogs were significantly more likely to use premedication than those who did these tests (both comparisons: P < 0.001). Likewise, the respondents who did not blood-type cats were significantly more likely to use premedication (P = 0.003); however, there was no association between crossmatching and using premedication in cats (P = 0.183). CONCLUSION: This is the first survey to describe transfusion practices across a variety of practice types throughout Australia. Future work is needed to determine how representative these results are of current transfusion practices across Australia, and if so, what can be done to optimise them.

The Impact of Experimentally Induced Limb Ischemia on the Rubber Hand Illusion.

The rubber hand illusion (RHI) is a perceptual illusion in which one experiences an object as part of their body when synchronous visuo-tactile stimulation is applied to one's hand and the object. There are a variety of factors that can impact the occurrence of the RHI. In the present study, we demonstrate that experimentally induced peripheral ischemia can impact the RHI, namely it can result in larger alterations to the perceived position of one's hand. This study suggests that alterations to the cardiovascular system may be a source of individual differences in the RHI literature. Future studies with samples of individuals with cardiovascular pathology are recommended.

The anger superiority effect revisited: a visual crowding task.

Visual search studies have shown that threatening facial expressions are more efficiently detected among a crowd of distractor faces than nonthreatening expressions, known as the anger superiority effect (ASE). However, the opposite finding has also been documented. The present study investigated the ASE in the visual periphery with a visual crowding task. In the study, the target face either appeared alone (uncrowded condition) or was crowded by four neutral or emotional faces (crowded condition). Participants were instructed to determine whether the target face was happy or angry. Experiment 1 showed an ASE when crowded by neutral faces. Intriguingly, this superiority vanished when the target face was crowded by emotional faces that had a different expression from the target as well as when the target face was presented alone. Experiment 2 replicated this result in an independent sample of East Asians (vs. Caucasians in Experiment 1) and thus demonstrated the robustness and cross-cultural consistency of our findings. Together, these results suggest that the ASE in the visual periphery is contingent on task demands induced by visual crowding.

Obstructive shock caused by right atrial thrombosis secondary to malignant pheochromocytoma in a dog.

BACKGROUND: Obstructive shock can be caused by any lesion leading to extraluminal compression or intraluminal occlusion of the cardiac chambers or major vessels. CASE REPORT: A 12-year-old, male castrated, Border Collie cross dog presented to a veterinary teaching hospital for collapse. A physical examination revealed severe vasoconstrictive shock and abdominal distension. Abnormalities on blood tests were consistent with systemic hypoperfusion. Cardiac underfilling, hepatomegaly with distended vasculature and ascites were identified by focused ultrasonography, raising suspicion of obstructive shock. This was supported by the radiographic findings of microcardia and a distended caudal vena cava (CVC). There was transient response to fluid therapy for blood volume expansion. Repeat focused ultrasonography during rapid intravenous fluid administration identified a right intra-atrial mass, assessed as likely to be causing obstruction of venous return. The dog was humanely euthanased given the guarded prognosis. At postmortem evaluation, a malignant pheochromocytoma in the left adrenal gland with tumour thrombus extending to the tricuspid valve through the CVC was found. The extensive thrombus caused the obstructive shock in this case. Metastasis in a peripheral lymph node and neoplastic emboli in the heart and lungs were also visible at the histopathological evaluation. CONCLUSION: To the best of authors' knowledge, this is the first report of severe obstructive shock secondary to extension of caval tumour thrombus into the right atrium in a dog with malignant pheochromocytoma. Tumour thrombus from a malignant pheochromocytoma should be included as a differential diagnosis of obstructive shock, with or without a visible right intra-atrial mass, in dogs. Serial focused ultrasonography during intravenous fluid administration can aid diagnosis.

Perceptual Validation of Nonlinear Postural Predictors of Visually Induced Motion Sickness.

Virtual reality (VR) technology has become increasingly prevalent in our society and has been used for a myriad of applications ranging from psychotherapy to training members of the military. However, one issue that arises from the use of VR is motion sickness, thus making predictors and indicators of motion sickness desirable. To date, a number of indicators of motion sickness have been derived based on nonlinear characteristics of human motion recorded using motion capture systems. While it is known that nonlinear measures can be used to predict motion sickness, it is not known whether people are perceptually sensitive to these particular nonlinear parameters. The aims of this study included establishing whether individuals consistently sort phase plots of sick and well individuals' postural motion without being explicitly told to do so; determining what nonlinear movement parameters could be used to represent these judgments; and assessing the stability of nonlinear measures found to be successful at predicting motion sickness by Smart et al. (2014). Through two methods of analysis (perceptual and quantitative), this research demonstrated that participants can indeed sort the graphic depictions of sick and well participants' postural motion and seem to be perceptually sensitive to nonlinear parameters (normalized path length, path length, elliptical area) that are known to be predictive of motion sickness.

SnakeMap: four years of experience with a national small animal snake envenomation registry.

SnakeMap is a national cloud-based, veterinary snakebite registry. It was designed to prospectively collect data of the clinical circumstances and temporospatial information on cases of snake envenomation in dogs and cats. We herein introduce the project and summarise the data from the first 4 years of SnakeMap. The registry is a veterinary community-based online database allowing case entry from veterinary hospitals across Australia. Registry data comprise hospital characteristics, patient characteristics, envenoming snake type, treatment and outcome variables, including time and geolocation of the snake bite. We present summative information on select key variables from the SnakeMap registry (1 July 2015 to 30 June 2019). Twenty-eight hospitals from 6 states/territories entered 624 cases into the registry, including 419 dogs (67%) and 205 cats (33%). Bite time was available in 216 animals of which 90 (42%) were reported to be bitten in the 3 hours between 03:00 pm and 05:59 pm; median bite to presentation interval was 60 (interquartile range [IQR] 30, 211) minutes in dogs and 95 (IQR 41, 238) minutes in cats. Bites occurred in the owner's yard in 356 dogs (85%) and 53 cats (26%). A snake venom detection kit was used in 172 cases (28%) and antivenom was administered in 523 cases (85%). Most animals (n = 534, 88%) survived to discharge (median hospitalisation of 25 [IQR 16, 62] hours). SnakeMap effectively collects relevant clinical data from dogs and cats with presumed snake bite and provides locally specific information on the epidemiology of snake envenomation in small animals.

High-Brightness Continuous-Wave Electron Beams from Superconducting Radio-Frequency Photoemission Gun.

Continuous-wave photoinjectors operating at high accelerating gradients promise to revolutionize many areas of science and applications. They can establish the basis for a new generation of monochromatic x-ray free electron lasers, high-brightness hadron beams, or a new generation of microchip production. In this Letter we report on the record-performing superconducting rf electron gun with CsK_{2}Sb photocathode. The gun is generating high charge electron bunches (up to 10 nC/bunch) and low transverse emittances, while operating for months with a single photocathode. This achievement opens a new era in generating high-power beams with a very high average brightness.

Responding to Other People's Posture: Visually Induced Motion Sickness From Naturally Generated Optic Flow.

Understanding the relationship between our actions and the perceptual information that is used to support them is becoming increasingly necessary as we utilize more digital and virtual technologies in our lives. Smart et al. (2014) found that altering the relationship between perception and action can have adverse effects, particularly if the perceptual information cannot be used to guide behavior. They also found that motion characteristics varied between people who remained well and those that became motion sick. The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of naturally produced virtual motion on postural regulation and examine how people respond to different types of optical flow (produced by other people). Participants were either exposed to optic flow produced by the postural motion of a person who did not become motion sick, or a person who did exhibit motion sickness from Smart et al. (2014). It was discovered that participants exhibited both stronger coupling and more incidents of motion sickness in response to optic flow generated by a non-sick participant. This suggests that participants recognized the potentially usable nature of the well-produced optic flow- but the open loop nature of the stimuli made this perception disruptive rather than facilitative.

The extraction of natural scene gist in visual crowding.

The gist of natural scenes can be extracted very rapidly and even without focal attention. However, it is unclear whether and to what extent the gist of natural scenes can break through the bottleneck of crowding, a phenomenon in which object recognition will be immensely impaired. In the first two experiments, a target scene, either presented alone or surrounded by four flankers, was categorized at basic (Experiment 1) or global levels (Experiment 2). It was showed that the elimination of high-level semantic information of flankers greatly alleviated the crowding effect, demonstrating that high-level information played an important role in crowding of scene gist. More importantly, participants were able to categorize the scenes in crowding at rather high accuracies, suggesting that the extraction of scene gist might be a prioritized process. To test this hypothesis, in Experiment 3 we compared the crowding effect of three types of stimuli, namely, scenes, facial expressions and letter "E"s. The results showed that scenes could be better categorized than the other two types of stimuli in the crowding condition. This scene gist advantage thus supported our hypothesis. Together, the present studies suggest that scene gist is highly recognizable in crowding, probably due to its prioritization in visual processing.

Long term outcomes of simple clinical risk stratification in management of differentiated thyroid cancer.

OBJECTIVE: To establish the long term outcomes of risk stratified management of differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC). BACKGROUND: Guidelines for management of DTC lack a strong evidence base and expose patients to overtreatment. This prospective study of patients diagnosed with DTC between 1977 and 2012 describes the long term outcomes of a conservative risk stratified (AMES) management policy. METHODS: Outcomes were analysed around patient and tumour characteristics, primary intervention (surgery ± radioiodine (RAI)), in terms of mortality, recurrence and reintervention. RESULTS: Median follow-up in 348 patients was 14 years: mean age 48 (range 10-91) years, 257 (73.9%) female, 222 (68.3%) papillary cancer, tumour size 3.4 ± 2.0 cm (mean ± SD). 89 (25.6%) AMES high risk, 116 (33.3%) TNM stage III/IV and 16 (4.6%) had distant metastases. Primary surgery comprised lobectomy in 189 (54.3%): 11 (5.8%) patients had subsequent completion total thyroidectomy with cancer present in five. Primary nodal surgery was performed in 142 (40.8%) patients. 35 (13.5%) low and 43 (48.3%) high risk patients received RAI following initial surgery. Overall disease specific survival (DSS) was 92.1% at 10 years and 90.7% at 20 years. DSS at 20 years was 99.2% in low risk cases. AMES risk scoring predicted both survival and recurrence. Patients receiving RAI and AMES high risk were significantly associated with increased risk of death and recurrence. CONCLUSIONS: Routine total thyroidectomy and RAI are not justifiable for low risk DTC. Treatment should be tailored to risk and AMES risk stratification remains a simple reliable clinical tool.

Effect of the Alexander Technique on Muscle Activation, Movement Kinematics, and Performance Quality in Collegiate Violinists and Violists: A Pilot Feasibility Study.

Musicians are trained to attend to aural and visual senses, to the detriment of kinesthetic awareness, which often results in unnecessary muscle tension and narrowed attentional focus. The Alexander technique (AT) addresses these concerns by approaching action using a process of whole-body consciousness. Incorporation of AT concepts into skill practice may reduce static tension in playing and result in both prevention of injury and improved quality of performance, but objective evidence of these effects is lacking. This pilot feasibility study was designed to determine if muscle activation, movement kinematics, musical performance, and qualitative self-assessment over the course of a 10- week AT intervention are viable means to assess the efficacy of AT in violinists/ violists. Two groups of collegiate violinists and violists participated: Group A (n=4) participated in weekly 1-hour group AT lessons and kept a personal journal of their progress. Group B (n=3) received no AT lessons. Pre- and post tests included muscle activation recorded using electromyography (EMG) and movement kinematics recorded via motion tracking as musicians played a scale and a Kreutzer étude. Performance was also video-recorded and evaluated by an expert for quality and kinesthetic awareness. The results suggest that the measures and intervention employed could, with some adaptation, be a viable means of determining the potential benefits of AT training.

The acute-phase mediator serum amyloid A is associated with symptoms of depression and fatigue.

OBJECTIVE: Establish whether inflammatory biomarkers-serum amyloid A (SAA), C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)-are related to key symptoms of depression, including anxiety and fatigue, in a cross-sectional, out-patient setting to identify biomarkers that reflect psychiatric symptomatology in a naturalistic, real-life population. METHODS: We measured SAA, CRP, IL-6, and TNF-α in plasma samples from 89 adult psychiatric out-patients by multiplex, high-sensitivity electrochemiluminescent assays. Psychiatric symptoms were evaluated using the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD-17), the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), and the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). RESULTS: Plasma SAA was most robustly associated with depressive symptoms across diagnostic boundaries in this cohort of out-patients. Elevated SAA was significantly associated with higher total scores on the HAMD-17 scale and correlated with multiple scale items that rated symptoms of fatigue and depressed mood, but not with anxiety-related items. CONCLUSIONS: SAA might constitute a cross-diagnostic marker indicative of depressed mood and fatigue in a naturalistic patient setting. Because SAA activates Toll-like receptors 2 and 4, present on macrophages and glial cells, its association with depression severity could also implicate this inflammatory mediator in the pathogenesis of mood disorders.

Searching for wheat resistance to aphids and wheat bulb fly in the historical Watkins and Gediflux wheat collections.

Insect pests can reduce wheat yield by direct feeding and transmission of plant viruses. Here we report results from laboratory and field phenotyping studies on a wide range of wheat, including landraces from the Watkins collection deriving from before the green revolution, more modern cultivars from the Gediflux collection (north-western Europe) and modern UK Elite varieties, for resistance to the bird cherry-oat aphid, Rhopalosiphum padi (Homoptera: Aphididae) and the English grain aphid, Sitobion avenae (Homoptera: Aphididae). A total of 338 lines were screened for R. padi and 340 lines for S. avenae. Field trials were also conducted on 122 Watkins lines to identify wheat bulb fly, Delia coarctata, preference on these landraces. Considerable variation was shown in insect performance among and within different wheat collections, with reduced susceptibility in a number of varieties, but phenotyping did not identify strong resistance to aphids or wheat bulb fly. Field trials showed within collection differences in aphid performance, with fewer aphids populating lines from the Watkins collection. This differs from development data in laboratory bioassays and suggests that there is a pre-alighting cue deterring aphid settlement and demonstrates differences in aphid preference and performance on older plants in the field compared with seedlings in the laboratory, highlighting the need for phenotyping for aphid resistance at different plant growth stages. No association was identified between performance of the different insect species on individual varieties, potentially suggesting different nutritional requirements or resistance mechanisms.

The impact of human papillomavirus type on colposcopy performance in women offered HPV immunisation in a catch-up vaccine programme: a two-centre observational study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether human papillomavirus (HPV) immunisation has affected the prevalence of HPV genotypes and colposcopic features of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) in young women referred for colposcopy. DESIGN: A two-centre observational study including vaccinated and unvaccinated women. SETTING: Colposcopy clinics serving two health regions in Scotland, UK. POPULATION: A total of 361 women aged 20-25 years attending colposcopy following an abnormal cervical cytology result at routine cervical screening. METHODS: Cervical samples were obtained from women for HPV DNA genotyping and mRNA E6/E7 expression of HPV 16, 18, 31, 33, and 45. Demographic data, cytology, and histology results and colposcopic features were recorded. Chi-square analysis was conducted to identify associations between vaccine status, HPV genotypes, and colposcopic features. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Colposcopic features, HPV genotypes, mRNA expression, and cervical histology. RESULTS: The prevalence of HPV 16 was significantly lower in the vaccinated group (8.6%) compared with the unvaccinated group (46.7%) (P = 0.001). The number of cases of CIN2+ was significantly lower in women who had been vaccinated (P = 0.006). The HPV vaccine did not have a statistically significant effect on commonly recognised colposcopic features, but there was a slight reduction in the positive predictive value (PPV) of colposcopy for CIN2+, from 74% (unvaccinated) to 66.7% (vaccinated). CONCLUSIONS: In this group of young women with abnormal cytology referred to colposcopy, HPV vaccination via a catch-up programme reduced the prevalence of CIN2+ and HPV 16 infection. The reduced PPV of colposcopy for the detection of CIN2+ in women who have been vaccinated is at the lower acceptable level of the UK national cervical screening programme guidelines. TWEETABLE ABSTRACT: Reduction of hrHPV positivity and CIN in immunised women consistent with lower PPV of colposcopy for CIN2+.

Interleukin-8, interleukin-1ß and tumour necrosis factor-α in sequential units of packed red blood cells collected from retired racing Greyhounds.

BACKGROUND: We hypothesised that concentrations of interleukin-8 (IL-8), interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) would increase during storage in the third sequential unit (U3) of canine packed red blood cells (PRBC) collected from terminal donors in haemorrhagic shock. We further hypothesised that leucoreduction would prevent cytokine accumulation in U3 and that cytokine concentrations in U3 would be higher than in the first units (U1) collected from the same dogs. METHODS: U1 and U3 were each collected from 12 anaesthetised healthy Greyhounds. Removal of leucocytes from half of each PRBC unit produced one leucoreduced (LR) and one non-leucoreduced (NLR) unit. Canine IL-8, IL-1ß and TNF-α concentrations were measured in samples collected from the units during storage on days 0, 10, 20, 30 and 37. RESULTS: The IL-8 concentration in U3 NLR units was significantly higher on days 10, 20, 30 and 37 than on day 0 and was significantly higher than in the LR units at all time points. The IL-1ß concentration in U3 did not change over time, or between LR and NLR units. TNF-α was not detected in any unit. There were no significant differences in IL-8 or IL-1ß concentrations between U3 and U1 at any time point; however, some NLR U3 units had markedly elevated IL-8 concentrations at day 37 (2060-20,682 pg/mL) compared with NLR U1 units (3369-5280 pg/mL). CONCLUSION: NLR U3 units collected from dogs in haemorrhagic shock showed a significant increase in IL-8 concentrations during storage. Leucoreduction was effective at preventing the accumulation of IL-8. There was no difference detected between U3 and U1.