The Relationship between Moral Climate of Sports and the Moral Behavior of Young Athletes: A Multilevel Meta-analysis.

Sports are among the most important leisure activities for youth and adolescents. Both positive (i.e., prosocial) and negative (i.e., antisocial) moral behaviors occur on the playing field. To stimulate positive sports experiences, it is important to understand which factors are related to the moral behavior of young athletes; one of these is the moral climate, that is, the socio-moral environment in which sports take place. Little is known about the overall strength of the relationship between moral climate and moral behavior of young athletes, as well as the potential moderating factors of this relationship. A meta-analysis of 27 studies containing 117 effect sizes and N = 7726 young athletes (age < 18 years) was conducted. The results show that there is an overall significant association between these two variables (r= 0.40), indicating that a prosocial moral climate is related to less antisocial and more prosocial behavior, while an antisocial moral climate is associated with more antisocial and less prosocial behavior of young athletes. Two study characteristics significantly moderated this relationship: specifically, stronger associations were found in cross-sectional and in older studies. In addition, the strength of the association between moral climate and moral behavior was stronger for antisocial moral climate compared to prosocial moral climate. Finally, associations for team members were stronger than those of coaches or a broad moral club climate. Implications for further research and sports practice are discussed.

Molecular friction as a tool to identify functionalized alkanethiols.

By using the nanografting method, well-defined nanoscale patches of alkanethiols were constructed in a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) matrix on an atomically flat gold (Au(111)) surface. A series of nanografted patches, composed of alkanethiols with different end groups (-CH(3), -CF(3), -OH, -SH, -COOH, and -NH(2)), were analyzed in detail by a combination of atomic force microscopy (AFM) height and quantitative lateral friction measurements. By constructing a series of nanografted patches of methyl-terminated thiols with various chain lengths, it was shown that the absolute friction of the nanografted patches was always smaller than that of the surrounding SAM matrix, demonstrating that, because of the spatially confined self-assembly during nanografting, SAMs show less defects. In addition, the friction gradually increased for decreasing alkane chain length as expected, although a subtle odd-even effect was observed. The study of thiols with functionalized end groups (-CF(3), -OH, -SH, -COOH, and -NH(2)) gave specific insights in orientation, packing, and structure of the molecules in the SAMs. Depending on the thiol end groups, these nanografted patches exhibited large and specific differences in lateral friction force, which offers the unique possibility to use the friction as a molecular recognition tool for thiol-based self-assembled monolayers.